|
The 1953 Iranian coup d'état, known in Iran as the 28 Mordad coup, was the overthrow of the democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in favour of strengthening the monarchical rule of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi on 19 August 1953, orchestrated by the United Kingdom (under the name "Operation Boot") and the United States (under the name ''TPAJAX'' Project).〔''CLANDESTINE SERVICE HISTORY: OVERTHROW OF PREMIER MOSSADEQ OF IRAN'', Mar. 1954: p iii.〕〔The CIA's history of the 1953 coup in Iran is made up of the following documents: a historian's note, a summary introduction, a lengthy narrative account written by Dr. Donald N. Wilber, and, as appendices, five planning documents he attached. Published 18 June 2000 by The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html〕 Mossadegh had sought to audit the books of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), a British corporation (now BP) and to change the terms of the company's access to Iranian petroleum reserves. Upon the refusal of the AIOC to co-operate with the Iranian government, the parliament (Majlis) voted to nationalize the assets of the company and expel their representatives from the country.〔〔 Following the coup in 1953, a government under General Fazlollah Zahedi was formed which allowed Mohammad-Rezā Shāh Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran (Persian for king),〔 to rule the country more firmly as monarch. He relied heavily on US and UK support to hold on to power until his own overthrow in February 1979.〔〔〔〔''U.S. foreign policy in perspective: clients, enemies and empire''. David Sylvan, Stephen Majeski, p. 121.〕 In August 2013, 60 years after, the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) admitted that it was involved in both the planning and the execution of the coup, including the bribing of Iranian politicians, security and army high-ranking officials, as well as pro-coup propaganda.〔(CIA finally admits it masterminded Iran's 1953 coup ) ''RT News''〕 The CIA is quoted acknowledging the coup was carried out "under CIA direction" and "as an act of U.S. foreign policy, conceived and approved at the highest levels of government." Iran's oil had been discovered and later controlled by the British-owned AIOC. Popular discontent with the AIOC began in the late 1940s: a large segment of Iran's public and a number of politicians saw the company as exploitative and a central tool of continued British imperialism in Iran.〔〔''U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran'' by Mark J. Gasiorowski (Cornell University Press: 1991) p. 59. ISBN 978-0-8014-2412-0〕 Despite Mosaddegh's popular support, the AIOC was unwilling to allow Iranian authorities to audit the company accounts or to renegotiate the terms of its access to Iranian petroleum. In 1951, Iran's petroleum industry was nationalized with near-unanimous support of the Majlis in a bill introduced by Mossadegh who led the Iranian nationalist party, the National Front. In response, Britain instigated a worldwide boycott of Iranian oil to pressure Iran economically.〔Mary Ann Heiss in ''Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran'', pp. 178–200〕 Initially, Britain mobilized its military to seize control of the British-built Abadan oil refinery, then the world's largest, but Prime Minister Clement Attlee opted instead to tighten the economic boycott〔''Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran''〕 while using Iranian agents to undermine Mosaddegh's government.〔Kinzer, ''All the Shah's Men'', p. 3 (In October 1952 Mosaddeq "orders the British embassy shut" after learning of British plotting to overthrow him.)〕 With a change to more conservative governments in both Britain and the United States, Winston Churchill and the Eisenhower administration decided to overthrow Iran's government, though the predecessor Truman administration had opposed a coup.〔Kinzer, Stephen. ''All the Shah's Men.'' Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008, p. 3〕 Classified documents show that British intelligence officials played a pivotal role in initiating and planning the coup, and that the AIOC contributed $25,000 towards the expense of bribing officials. Britain and the US selected General Zahedi to be the prime minister of a government that was to replace Mosaddegh's. Subsequently, a royal decree dismissing Mosaddegh and appointing Zahedi was drawn up by the coup plotters and signed by the Shah. The CIA had successfully pressured the weak monarch to participate in the coup, while bribing street thugs, clergy, politicians and Iranian army officers to take part in a propaganda campaign against Mosaddegh and his government.〔Gasiorowski, pp. 237–9, 243〕 At first the coup appeared to be a failure when, on the night of 15–16 August, Imperial Guard Colonel Nematollah Nassiri was arrested while attempting to arrest Mosaddegh. The Shah fled the country the next day. On 19 August, a pro-Shah mob paid by the CIA marched on Mosaddegh's residence.〔''Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran'', Edited by Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p.xiv〕 According to the CIA's declassified documents and records, some of the most feared mobsters in Tehran were hired by the CIA to stage pro-Shah riots on 19 August. Other CIA-paid men were brought into Tehran in buses and trucks, and took over the streets of the city. Between 300〔 and 800 people were killed because of the conflict.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=CSP—Major Episodes of Political Violence, 1946–2008 )〕 Mosaddegh was arrested, tried and convicted of treason by the Shah's military court. On 21 December 1953, he was sentenced to three years in jail, then placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life.〔Abrahamian, Ervand, ''Iran Between Two Revolutions'' by Ervand Abrahamian, (Princeton University Press, 1982), p. 280〕〔''Mossadegh—A Medical Biography'' by Ebrahim Norouzi〕〔''Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics'' by L.P. Elwell-Sutton. 1955. Lawrence and Wishart Ltd. London〕 Other Mosaddegh supporters were imprisoned, and several received the death penalty.〔 After the coup, the Shah ruled as a monarch for the next 26 years〔〔 while modernizing the country using oil revenues, until he was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution in 1979.〔〔〔Kinzer, Stephen, ''All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror'', John Wiley and Sons, 2003.〕 The tangible benefits the United States reaped from overthrowing Iran's elected government included a share of Iran's oil wealth〔Kinzer, Stephen, ''Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq'' (Henry Holt and Company 2006). pp. 200–201〕 and ensuring the Iranian nation remained under the control of an ally. Washington continually supplied arms to the Shah and the CIA-trained SAVAK, his secret police force;〔 however by the 1979 revolution, his increasingly independent policies resulted in his effective abandonment by his American allies, hastening his downfall.〔 The coup is widely believed to have significantly contributed to anti-American and anti-British sentiment in Iran and in the Middle East. The 1979 revolution deposed the Shah and replaced the pro-Western monarchy with a largely anti-Western authoritarian theocracy.〔International Journal of Middle East Studies, 19, 1987, p. 261〕 ==Background== Throughout the 19th century, Iran was caught between two advancing imperial powers, Russia and Britain. In 1892, the British diplomat George Curzon described Iran as "pieces on a chessboard upon which is being played out a game for the dominion of the world."〔Mark J. Gasiorowski, ''U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran'' (Cornell University Press: 1991) p. 32; George N. Curzon, ''Persia and the Persian Question'', vol. 1. (London: Cass, 1966) pp. 3–4.〕 During the latter half of the 19th century, the concession policies of the monarchy faced increased opposition. In 1872, a representative of Paul Reuter, met with Naser al-Din Shah Qajar and agreed to fund the monarch's upcoming lavish visit to Europe in return for exclusive contracts including mining and railway rights. The concession the Shah had given to Reuter was never put into effect because of violent opposition at home and from Russia.〔Elwell-Sutton, L. P. ''Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics'' (Lawrence and Wishart Ltd.: London) 1955. p. 12.〕 In 1892 the Shah was forced to revoke a tobacco monopoly given to Major G.F Talbot, following protests and a widespread tobacco boycott. In 1901, Mozzafar al-Din Shah Qajar, granted a 60-year petroleum search concession to William Knox D'Arcy.〔''All the Shah's Men : An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror'', by Stephen Kinzer, (John Wiley and Sons, 2003), p. 33〕 D'Arcy paid £20,000, according to journalist-turned-historian Stephen Kinzer, and promised equal ownership shares, with 16% of any future net profit, as calculated by the company.〔Kinzer, ''All the Shah's Men'', p. 48〕 However, the historian L.P. Elwell-Sutton wrote, in 1955, that "Persia's share was 'hardly spectacular' and no money changed hands."〔Elwell-Sutton, L. P. ''Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics'' (Lawrence and Wishart Ltd.: London) 1955. p. 15〕 On 31 July 1907, D'Arcy withdrew from his private holdings in Persia, and transferred them to the British-owned Burmah Oil Company.〔Elwell-Sutton, L. P. ''Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics'' p. 17〕 On 26 May 1908 the company struck oil at a depth of 〔Elwell-Sutton, L. P. ''Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics'' p. 19〕 The company grew slowly until World War I, when Persia's strategic importance led the British government to buy a controlling share in the company, essentially nationalizing British oil production in Iran. The British angered the Persians by intervening in their domestic affairs including in the Persian Constitutional Revolution .〔Mangol Bayat, ''Iran's First Revolution: Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1909'', Studies in Middle Eastern History, 336 p. (Oxford University Press, 1991). ISBN 0-19-506822-X.〕〔Browne, Edward G., "The Persian Revolution of 1905–1909", Mage Publishers (July 1995). ISBN 0-934211-45-0〕〔Afary, Janet, "The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911", Columbia University Press. 1996. ISBN 0-231-10351-4〕 Massive popular protests had forced Mozzafar al-Din Shah to allow for the Constitution of 1906, which limited his powers. It allowed for a democratically elected parliament Majlis to make the laws, and a prime minister to sign and carry them out. The Prime Minister would be appointed by the Shah after a vote of confidence from Parliament. Nevertheless, the new constitution gave the shah many executive powers as well. It allowed for the shah to issue royal decrees (Farman), gave him the power to appoint and dismiss prime ministers (upon votes of confidence from Parliament), appoint half of the members of the Senate (which was not convened until 1949),〔 and introduce bills to and even dissolve Parliament.〔〔 It abolished arbitrary rule, but the shah served as an executive, rather than in a ceremonial role; consequently when a shah was weak, the government was more democratic, but when the shah acted on his own, the democratic aspects of the government could be sidelined. The contradictory aspects of this constitution would cause conflicts in the future.〔 The Constitutional Revolution was opposed by the British and Russians, who attempted to subvert it through the backing of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar (the son of Mozzafar-e-din Shah), who tried to break up the democratic government by force. A guerrilla movement led by Sattar Khan deposed him in 1910.〔〔 In the aftermath of World War I there was widespread political dissatisfaction with the royalty terms of the British petroleum concession, under the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC), whereby Persia received 16% of "net profits".〔Stephen Kinzer: "All the Shah's Men. An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror", John Wiley and Sons, 2003.〕 In 1921, after years of severe mismanagement under the Qajar Dynasty, a coup d'état (allegedly backed by the British) brought a general, Reza Khan, into the government. By 1923, he had become prime minister, and gained a reputation as an effective politician with a lack of corruption.〔 By 1925 under his influence, Parliament voted to remove Ahmad Shah Qajar from the throne, and Reza Khan was crowned Reza Shah Pahlavi, of the Pahlavi Dynasty. Reza Shah began a rapid and successful modernization program in Persia, which up until that point had been considered to be among the most impoverished countries in the world. Nevertheless, Reza Shah was also a very harsh ruler who did not tolerate dissent. By the 1930s, he had suppressed all opposition, and had sidelined the democratic aspects of the constitution. Opponents were jailed and in some cases even executed. While some agreed with his policies, arguing that it was necessary as Iran was in such turmoil, others argued that it was unjustified.〔 One such opponent was a politician named Mohammad Mossadegh, who was jailed in 1940. The experience gave him a lasting dislike for authoritarian rule and monarchy, and it helped make Mossadegh a dedicated advocate of complete oil nationalization in Iran.〔 Reza Shah attempted to attenuate the power of the colonial forces in Iran and was successful to a large extent. However, he also needed them to help modernize the country. He did so by balancing the influence of various colonial powers, including that of Britain and Germany.〔 In the 1930s, Reza Shah tried to terminate the APOC concession that the Qajar dynasty had granted, but Iran was still weak and Britain would not allow it. The concession was renegotiated on terms again favorable to the British (although the D'Arcy Concession was softened).〔 On 21 March 1935, Reza Shah changed the name of the country from Persia to Iran. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was then renamed the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC).〔Mackey, ''Iranians'', Plume, (1998), p. 178〕 In 1941, after the Nazi invasion of the USSR, the British and Commonwealth of Nations forces and the Red Army invaded Iran. Reza Shah had declared neutrality in World War II and tried to balance between the two major powers, Britain and Nazi Germany.〔〔 The primary reason for the invasion was in order to secure Iran's oil fields and the Trans-Iranian Railway in order to deliver supplies to the USSR. Reza Shah was arrested, deposed, and exiled by the British, and some other prominent officials were jailed as well.〔 Reza Shah's 22-year-old son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, became the Shah of Iran. The young new Shah, unlike his father, was initially a mild leader and at times indecisive. During the 1940s he did not for most part take an independent role in the government, and much of Reza Shah's authoritarian policies were rolled back. Iranian democracy effectively was restored during this period as a result.〔〔 The British soldiers withdrew from Iran after the end of the war. The Soviet Union partly remained by sponsoring two "People's Democratic Republics" within Iran's borders. The related conflict was ended when the US lobbied for the Iranian army to reassert control over the two occupied territories. The earlier agreed upon Soviet-Iranian oil agreement would never be honored.〔 Nationalist leaders in Iran became influential by seeking a reduction in long-term foreign interventions in their country—especially the oil concession which was very profitable for the West and not very profitable for Iran. The British-controlled AIOC refused to allow its books to be audited to determine whether the Iranian government was being paid what had been promised. British intransigence irked the Iranian population. U.S. objectives in the Middle East remained the same between 1947 and 1952 but its strategy changed. Washington remained "publicly in solidarity and privately at odds" with Britain, its World War II ally. Britain's empire was steadily weakening, and with an eye on international crises, the U.S. re-appraised its interests and the risks of being identified with British colonial interests. "In Saudi Arabia, to Britain's extreme disapproval, Washington endorsed the arrangement between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia in the 50/50 accord that had reverberations throughout the region."〔''Notes From the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958'' by Boston University political science Professor Irene L. Gendzier, (Westview Press, 1999) ISBN 978-0-8133-6689-0 pp. 34–35〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「1953 Iranian coup d'état」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|