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Adolescence
Adolescence ()〔''Macmillan Dictionary for Students'' Macmillan, Pan Ltd. (1981), page 14, 456. Retrieved 2010-7-15.〕 is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority).〔〔(【引用サイトリンク】publisher=''Merriam-Webster'' )〕 The period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years,〔〔(【引用サイトリンク】publisher=''Psychology Today'' )〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】publisher= )〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】publisher= )〕 though its physical, psychological and cultural expressions may begin earlier and end later. For example, although puberty has been historically associated with the onset of adolescent development, it now typically begins prior to the teenage years and there has been a normative shift of it occurring in preadolescence, particularly in females (see precocious puberty).〔 Physical growth, as distinct from puberty (particularly in males), and cognitive development generally seen in adolescence, can also extend into the early twenties. Thus chronological age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence.〔〔
A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a transitional period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles.〔Larson, R., & Wilson, S. (2004). Adolescence across place and time: Globalization and the changing pathways to adulthood. In R. Lerner and L. Steinberg Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley〕 It is a period of multiple transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment, as well as transitions from one living circumstance to another.〔Coleman, John; Roker, Debi. Psychologist11. 12 (Dec 1998): 593. "Adolescence".〕
The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function. Furthermore, even within a single nation state or culture there can be different ages at which an individual is considered (chronologically and legally) mature enough for society to entrust them with certain privileges and responsibilities. Such milestones include driving a vehicle, having legal sexual relations, serving in the armed forces or on a jury, purchasing and drinking alcohol, voting, entering into contracts, finishing certain levels of education, and marriage. Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence.
In studying adolescent development, adolescence can be defined biologically, as the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth; cognitively, as changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally; or socially, as a period of preparation for adult roles. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, and muscle mass, as well as major changes in brain structure and organization. Cognitive advances encompass both increases in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations. For example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles (e.g., worker or romantic partner) and how this varies across cultures or social conditions.〔Côté, J. E. (1996). Identity: A multidimensional analysis. In G. R. Adams, T. Gullotta & R. Montemeyer (Eds.), ''Issues in Adolescent Development (Vol. 6, pp. 130–180)''. New York, NY: Sage Publications.〕 Developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status.〔Simmons, R., & Blyth, D. (1987). ''Moving into adolescence.'' New York: Aldine de Gruyter.〕
==Biological development==
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