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Afro-Brazilian is a term used in the 21st century by some in Brazil to refer to Brazilian people with African ancestry. The term does not have widespread use in Brazil, where social constructs and classifications have been based on appearance. People with noticeable African features and skin color are generally referred to (and they identify) as ''negro'' or "preto ("black"). Many members of another group of people, multiracial Brazilians, or ''pardos,'' also have a range of degree of African ancestry. Preto and pardo are among five color categories used by the Brazilian Census, along with ''branco'' ("white"), ''amarelo'' ("yellow", East Asian) and ''indígena'' (Amerindian).〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Censo 2010 )〕 In 2010, 7.6% of the Brazilian population, some 15 million people, identified as "preto," while 43% (86 million) identified as "pardo". Pretos tend to be predominantly African in ancestry, while pardos tend to have a lesser percentage of African ancestry. On average pardos are predominantly European, with African or Native American ancestries, but also Roma people and people of Eurasian background Since the early 21st century, Brazilian government agencies such as the SEPPIR and the IPEA, have considered combining the categories "preto" and "pardo" (individual with varied racial ancestries), as a single category called "negro" (Black, capital initial), because both groups show socioeconomic indications of discrimination. They suggest doing so would make it easier to help people who have been closed out of opportunity. This decision has caused much controversy because there is no consensus about it in Brazilian society.〔(IBGE embaralha números e confunde debate sobre brancos e negros )〕 Brazilians rarely use the American-style phrase "African Brazilian" as a term of ethnic identity,〔 and never in informal discourse: the IBGE's July 1998 PME shows that, of Black Brazilians, only about 10% identify as being of "African origin"; most identify as being of "Brazilian origin".〔Simon Schwartzman. (Fora de foco: diversidade e identidades étnicas no Brasil ). Quadro 6, p. 10.〕 In the July 1998 PME, the categories "Afro-Brasileiro" (Afro-Brazilian) and "Africano Brasileiro" (African Brazilian) were not chosen at all; the category "Africano" (African) was selected by 0.004% of the respondents.〔José Luiz Petrucelli. A Cor Denominada. Anexo 1. p. 43 (unavailable online)〕 In the 1976 National Household Sample (PNAD), none of these terms was used even once.〔Cristina Grillo, "(Brasil quer ser chamado de moreno e só 39% se autodefinem como brancos )", ''Folha de S. Paolo,'' 25 June 1995. (PDF) Accessed 19 September 2010.〕 Brazilian geneticist Sérgio Pena has criticised American scholar Edward Telles for lumping "pretos" and "pardos" in the same category. According to him, "the autosomal genetic analysis that we have performed in non-related individuals from Rio de Janeiro shows that it does not make any sense to put "pretos" and "pardos" in the same category".〔http://cienciahoje.uol.com.br/colunas/deriva-genetica/do-pensamento-racial-ao-pensamento-racional〕〔http://www.laboratoriogene.com.br/geneImprensa/2009/pensamento.pdf〕 As many pardos are primarily of European ancestry, Pena questioned studying them together with pretos, who are primarily of African ancestry. For example, an autosomal genetic study of students in a school in the poor periphery of Rio de Janeiro found that the "pardos" among the students were found to be on average more than 80% European in ancestry. Before testing, the students identified (when asked) as 1/3 European, 1/3 African and 1/3 Amerindian.〔http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/current/readings/santos-race-brazil.pdf ], University of Nebraska Lincoln〕 According to Edward Telles, three different systems related to "racial classification" along the White-Black continuum are used in Brazil.〔Telles. (Race in Another America ), pp. 80-81.〕 The first is the Census System, which distinguishes three categories: "branco" (White), "pardo", and "preto".〔 The second is the popular social system that uses many different categories, including the ambiguous term "moreno".〔 (literally meaning "tanned", "brunette", or "with an olive complexion")〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title= ''adj. e s.m. Diz-se de, ou quem tem cabelos negros e pele um pouco escura; trigueiro. / Bras. Designação irônica ou eufemística que se dá aos pretos e mulatos. Literally, this means: "(said of) those who have black hair and a somewhat dark skin, of the colour of ripe wheat. / (in Brazil) Ironic or euphemistic designation given to blacks and Mulattoes )〕 The third is the Black movement, which distinguishes only two categories, summing up "pardos" and "pretos" (blacks, lowercase) as "negros" (Blacks, with capital initial), and putting all others as "whites.〔Telles (2004), ''Race in Another America'', p. 85〕 More recently, the term "afrodescendente" has been adopted for use,〔Pena, Sérgio, and Bortolini, Maria Cátira. (Pode a genética definir quem deve se beneficiar das cotas universitárias e demais ações afirmativas? (Can genetics define who should benefit from university quotas and affirmative action) ) Note 1, p. 47〕 but it is restricted to very formal discourse, such as governmental or academic discussions, being viewed by some as a cultural imposition from the "politically correct speech" common in the United States. ==Brazilian race/colour categories== (詳細はBrazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE). In the Census, respondents may identify their ethnicity or color from five categories: ''branca'' (white), ''parda'' (brown), ''preta'' (black), ''amarela'' (yellow) or ''indígena'' (indigenous). The term "parda" needs further explanation; it has been systematically used since the Census of 1940. In that census, people were asked for their "colour or race"; if the answer was not "White", "preta" (black), or "Yellow", interviewers were instructed to fill the "colour or race" box with a slash. These slashes were later summed up in the category "pardo". In practice this means answers such as ''"pardo",'' ''"moreno",'' ''"mulato",'' ''"caboclo",'' etc., all indicating mixed race. In the following censuses, "pardo" was added as a category on its own, and included Amerindians.〔IBGE. (Censo Demográfico ). p. XVIII〕 The latter were defined as a separate category only in 1991. It is a term for people of color who are lighter than blacks, and does not imply a black-white mixture, as there are some "pure" indigenous persons. Telles' second system is that of popular classification. Two IBGE surveys made more than 20 years apart (the 1976 National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) and the July 1998 Monthly Employment Survey (PME) have been analyzed to assess how Brazilians think of themselves in "racial" terms. The IBGE thought the data might be used to adjust classifications on the census (neither survey, however, resulted in changes to the Census classifications). Data Folha has also conducted research on this subject. The results of these surveys are somewhat varied, but seem to coincide in some fundamental aspects. First, a great number of "racial" terms are in use in Brazil, indicating a flexibility in thinking about the topic. The 1976 PNAD found that people responded with a total of 136 different terms to the question about race;〔 the July 1998 PME found 143.〔José Luiz Petrucelli. ''A Cor Denominada.'' (The Identified/Named Color), p. 18 (unavailable online)〕 However, most of these terms are used by small numbers of people. Telles notes that 95% of the population used one of 6 different terms for people of color and at least some African ancestry (''branco, moreno, pardo, moreno-claro, preto'' and ''negro''). Petrucelli shows that the 7 most common responses (the above plus ''amarela'') sum up 97% of responses, and the 10 most common (the previous plus ''mulata'', ''clara'', and ''morena-escura'' - dark brunette) make 99%.〔José Luiz Petrucelli. ''A Cor Denominada,'' p. 19 (unavailable online)〕 Petrucelli, analysing the July 98 PME, finds that 77 denominations were mentioned by only one person in the sample. Twelve are misunderstandings, as respondents used terms of national or regional origin (''francesa, italiana, baiana, cearense''). Many of the "racial" terms are (or could be) remarks about the relation between skin colour and exposure to sun (''amorenada, bem morena, branca-morena, branca-queimada, corada, bronzeada, meio morena, morena-bronzeada, morena-trigueira, morenada, morenão, moreninha, pouco morena, queimada, queimada de sol, tostada, rosa queimada, tostada''). Others are clearly variations of the same idea (''preto, negro, escuro, crioulo, retinto'', for black, ''alva, clara, cor-de-leite, galega, rosa, rosada, pálida'', for White, ''parda, mulata, mestiça, mista'', for "parda"), or refinements of the same concept (''branca morena, branca clara''), and can be grouped together with one of the chiefly used racial terms without falsifying the interpretation.〔 Some responses seem to express an outright refusal of classification: ''azul-marinho'' (navy blue), ''azul'' (blue), ''verde'' (green), ''cor-de-burro-quando-foge''. In the July 1998 PME, the categories "Afro-Brasileiro" (Afro-Brazilian) and "Africano Brasileiro" (African Brazilian) were not used at all; the category "Africano" (African) was used by 0.004% of the respondents.〔 In the 1976 PNAD, none of these terms was used even once.〔 The notable difference in the popular system is the widespread use of the term "moreno". This is difficult to translate into English, and carries a few different meanings. Derived from Latin ''maurus'', meaning inhabitant of Mauritania,〔José Luiz Petrucelli. ''A Cor Denominada,'' p. 14 (unavailable online)〕 traditionally it has traditionally been used to distinguish White people with dark hair, as opposed to "ruivo" (redhead) and "loiro" (blonde).〔()〕 It is also commonly used as a term for people with an olive complexion, a characteristic that is often found in connection with dark hair.〔Anusuya A. Mokashi and Noah S. Scheinfeld. "Photoaging," In Robert A. Norman, (''Diagnosis of Aging Skin Diseases'' ), p. 13.〕 In this connection, it is applied as a term for suntanned people, and is commonly opposed to "pálido" (pale) and "amarelo" (yellow), which in this case refer to people who aren't frequently exposed to sun. Finally, it is also often used as a euphemism for "pardo" and "preto".〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=adj. e s.m. Diz-se de, ou quem tem cabelos negros e pele um pouco escura; trigueiro. / Bras. Designação irônica ou eufemística que se dá aos pretos e mulatos. Literally, this means: "(said of) those who have black hair and a somewhat dark skin, of the colour of ripe wheat. / (in Brazil) Ironic or euphemistic designation given to blacks and mulattoes. )〕 Finally, the Black movement has combined the groups "pardos" and "pretos" as a single category of "negro" (it does not use "Afro-brasileiro" or any other hyphenated form).〔Telles (2004), ''Race in Another America'', p. 85〕 This appears to be similar to the Black Power movement in the United States, or, historically, the discriminatory one drop rule.〔Telles. (Race in another America ). p. 86: ''The Brazilian government had sought to dichotomize, or worse, (North) "americanize" racial classification in a society that used and even celebrated intermediate terms.''〕 But in Brazil, the Black movement understands that not everybody with some African descent is Black.〔Kabengele Munanga (Uma resposta contra o racismo ). In Brasil Autogestinário. ''Do ponto de vista norteamericano, todos os brasileiros seriam, de acordo com as pesquisas do geneticista Sergio Danilo Pena, considerados negros ou ameríndios, pois todos possuem, em porcentagens variadas, marcadores genéticos africanos e ameríndios, além de europeus, sem dúvida.'' ("From the American standpoint, all Brazilians would, according to the researches of geneticist Sergio Danilo Pena, be considered Black or Amerindian, for all of them have, in varied proportions, African and Amerindian genetic markers, besides, of course, European ones")〕 It knows that many White Brazilians have African (or Amerindian, or both) ancestrys – so a "one drop rule" isn't what the Black movement envisages,〔Telles (2004), Race in Another America, p. 85.: ''Thus, they claim that Brazil's informal one-drop rule holds that one drop of White blood allows one to avoid being classified as Black, a tradition that they seek to revert.''〕 as it would make affirmative actions impossible. Second, the main issue for the Black movement isn't "cultural", but rather economic: its members are not seeking a supposed cultural identification with Africa, but rather to rectify a situation of economic disadvantage, common to those who are non-White (with the exception of those of East Asian ancestry), that groups them into a "negro" category. However, this effort to divide Brazilians between "brancos" and "negros" is seen as influenced by American one-drop rule, and attracts much criticism. For instance, sociologist Demétrio Magnoli considers classifying all ''pretos'' and ''pardos'' as Blacks as an "assault" on the racial vision of Brazilians. He believes that scholars and activists of the Black movement misinterpret the ample variety of intermediate categories, characteristic of the popular system, to be a result of Brazilian racism, and that causes Blacks to refuse their identity and "hide" in euphemisms.〔MAGNOLI, Demétrio. ''Uma Gota de Sangue'', Editora Contexto 2008 (2008). p. 143〕 Magnoli refers to a survey about race, conducted in the town of Rio de Contas, Bahia, in which the choice of "pardo" was replaced by "moreno". The town has about 14,000 people, 58% of whom White. Not only "pardos" chose the "moreno" category, but also almost half of the people who previously had identified as white, and half the people previously identified as ''pretos'' also choose the moreno category.〔MAGNOLI, Demétrio. ''Uma Gota de Sangue'', Editora Contexto 2008 (2008). p. 157. Notice how the words "moreno" and "pardo" cannot be synonymous: they refer to different sets of people.〕 According to a 2000 survey held in Rio de Janeiro, the entire self-reported ''preto'' population reported to have African ancestry. 86% of the self-reported "pardo" and 38% of the self-reported White population reported to have African ancestors. It is notable that 14% of the pardos (brown) from Rio de Janeiro said they have no African ancestors. This percentage may be even higher in Northern Brazil, where there was a greater ethnic contribution from Amerindian populations.〔 Racial classifications in Brazil are based on skin color and on other physical characteristics such as facial features, hair texture, etc.〔Flávia Parra et alli. (Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians ) 2nd paragraph: ''Color (in Portuguese, cor) denotes the Brazilian equivalent of the English term race (raça) and is based on a complex phenotypic evaluation that takes into account, besides skin pigmentation, hair type, nose shape, and lip shape''〕 This is a poor scientific indication of ancestry, because only a few genes are responsible for someone's skin color: a person who is considered White may have more African ancestry than a person who is considered Black, and vice versa.〔(BBC delves into Brazilians' roots ) accessed July 13, 2009〕 But, as race is a social construct, these classifications relate to how people are perceived and perceive themselves in society. In Brazil, class and economic status also affect how individuals are perceived. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Afro-Brazilian」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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