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Artha ((サンスクリット:अर्थ)) is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy.〔James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 55-56〕 The word ''artha'' literally translates as “meaning, sense, goal, purpose or essence” depending on the context.〔see: * (Sanskrit English Dictionary ) University of Kloen, Germany (2009) * Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 3, ISBN 81-208-0310-8, Motilal Banarsidass, pp 610 (note 17)〕 Artha is also a broader concept in the scriptures of Hinduism. As a concept, it has multiple meanings, all of which imply “means of life”, activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in.〔John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315-319〕 Artha applies to both an individual and a government. In an individual’s context, ''artha'' includes wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.〔〔Bruce Sullivan (1997), Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0810833272, pp 29-30〕 At government level, ''artha'' includes social, legal, economic and worldly affairs. Proper Arthashastra is considered an important and necessary objective of government.〔〔Constance Jones and James Ryan (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9, pp 45〕 In Hindu traditions, Artha is connected to the three other aspects and goals of human life - Dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), Kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional fulfillment) and Moksha (liberation, release, self-actualization). Together, these mutually non-exclusive four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha.〔"Artha" in Encyclopædia Britannica, Chicago, 15th edn., 1992, Vol. 1, p. 601.〕〔see: * A. Sharma (1982), The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology, Michigan State University, ISBN 9789993624318, pp 9-12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (Jul., 1984), pp. 140-142; * A. Sharma (1999), (The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism ), The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223-256; * Chris Bartley (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Editor: Oliver Learman, ISBN 0-415-17281-0, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, pp 443〕 ==Definition and meaning== Artha as a concept includes multiple meanings. It is difficult to capture the meaning of artha, or related terms of ''dharma'', ''kama'' and ''moksha'', each in a single English word.〔Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, ISBN 978-1896209302, paragraph overlapping pp. 12-13〕 John Lochtefeld describes〔 ''artha'' as the means of life, and includes material prosperity. Karl Potter explains〔Karl H. Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807792, pp. 1-29〕 it as an attitude and capability that enables one to make a living, to remain alive, to thrive as a free person. It includes economic prosperity, security and health of oneself and those one feels responsible for.〔 Artha includes everything in one’s environment that allows one to live. It is neither an end state nor an endless goal of aimlessly amassing money, claims Karl Potter,〔 rather it is an attitude and necessary requirement of human life. John Koller takes〔 a different viewpoint than Karl Potter’s interpretation. John Koller suggests artha is not an attitude, rather it is one of the necessities of human life. A central premise of Hindu philosophy, claims Koller, is that every person should live a joyous and pleasurable life, that such fulfilling life requires every person’s needs and desires be acknowledged and fulfilled, that needs can only be satisfied through activity and when sufficient means for those activities are available. Artha, then, is best described as pursuit of activities and means necessary for a joyous and pleasurable life.〔 Daya Krishna argues〔Daya Krishna, The myth of the purusarthas, in Theory of Value (Editor: Roy Perrett), Volume 5, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-8153-3612-8, pp 11-24〕 that ''artha'', as well as the concept of Puruṣārthas, is a myth. The various schools and ancient Sanskrit texts provide no consensus opinion, notes Krishna, rather they present a debate, a diversity of views on what ''artha'' and Puruṣārtha means. Inconsistencies and conflicting verses are even present within the same script, such as the Manusmriti. Some ancient Indian texts suggest artha are instruments that enable satisfaction of desires; some include wealth, some include power, and some such as the bhakti schools include instruments to love God. Some of this, suggests Krishna, reflects differences in human needs. Perhaps, conjectures Krishna, artha is just a subset of kama and karma.〔 Vatsyayana in Kama Sutra defines ''artha'' as the acquisition of arts, land, cattle, wealth, equipages and friends. He explains, artha is also protection of what is already acquired, and the increase of what is protected.〔The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925), (The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana ), University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8〕 Gavin Flood explains〔Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, ISBN 978-1896209302, pp 11-13〕 artha as “worldly success” without violating dharma (moral responsibility), kama (love) and one’s journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation). Flood clarifies that ''artha'' in ancient Hindu literature, as well as purushartha, is better understood as a goal of Man (not a man). In other words, it is one of the four purposes of human life. The survival and the thriving of humans requires artha - that is, economic activity, wealth and its creation, worldly success, profit, political success and all that that is necessary for human existence.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Artha」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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