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Bhakti ((サンスクリット:भक्ति)) literally means "attachment, participation, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to (as a religious principle or means of salvation)".〔See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899.〕 Bhakti, in Hinduism, refers to devotion and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.〔(Bhakti ), Encyclopedia Britannica (2009)〕〔 In ancient texts such as the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the term simply means participation in, devotion and love for any endeavor, or it refers to one of the possible paths of spirituality and moksha as in ''bhakti marga'' mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita.〔John Lochtefeld (2014), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York, ISBN 978-0823922871, pages 98-100, also see articles on bhaktimārga and jnanamārga〕 The term also refers to a movement that arose between the 7th century and 10th century CE in India, focussed on the gods Vishnu and Shiva, possibly in response to the arrival of Islam in India.〔〔Karen Pechelis (2011), Bhakti Traditions, in The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies (Editors: Jessica Frazier, Gavin Flood), Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 107-121〕 The Bhakti movement reached North India in the Delhi Sultanate and grew throughout the Mughal era evolving the characteristics of Hinduism as the religion of the general population as dhimmi, under the Islamic rulers in parts of the Indian subcontinent.〔Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 120.〕 Bhakti-like movements also spread to other Indian religions during this period, and it influenced the interaction between Christianity and Hinduism in the modern era.〔A Frank Thompson (1993), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters (Editor: Harold Coward), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120811584, pages 176-186〕〔Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, see Introduction chapter〕 The term ''bhakti'', in modern era, is used to refer to any tradition of Hindu devotionalism, including ''Shaivism'' ,''Vaishnavism'' or ''Shaktism''. Bhakti movement rose in importance during the medieval history of Hinduism, starting with Southern India with the Vaisnava Alvars and Shaiva Nayanars,〔 growing rapidly therefrom with the spread bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India by the 12th-18th century CE.〔 The ''Bhagavata Purana'' is a text associated with the Bhakti movement which elaborates the concept of bhakti as found in the ''Bhagavad Gita''.〔 Along with Hinduism, nirguni ''Bhakti'' (devotion to the divine without attributes) is found in Sikhism.〔〔 ==Terminology== The Sanskrit word ''bhakti'' is derived from the root ''bhaj'', which means "divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to".〔 The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".〔〔(bhakti ) Sanskrit English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany〕 The meaning of the term ''Bhakti'' is analogous but different than Kama. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection.〔Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 19-21〕 Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement.〔 She adds that, in the concept of ''bhakti'' in Hinduism, the engagement involves a simultaneous tension between emotion and intellection, "emotion to reaffirm the social context and temporal freedom, intellection to ground the experience in a thoughtful, conscious approach".〔 One who practices ''bhakti'' is called a ''bhakta''.〔Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 3〕 The term bhakti, in Vedic Sanskrit literature, has a general meaning of "mutual attachment, devotion, fondness for, devotion to" such as in human relationships, most often between beloved-lover, friend-friend, king-subject, parent-child. It may refer to devotion towards a spiritual teacher (Guru) as ''guru-bhakti'', or to a personal god,〔 or for spirituality without form (nirguna).〔Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 21〕 The term ''Bhakti'' also refers to one of several alternate spiritual paths to moksha (spiritual freedom, liberation, salvation) in Hinduism,〔 and it is referred to as ''bhakti marga'' or ''bhakti yoga''.〔Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 14-15, 37-38〕 The other paths are ''Jnana marga'' (path of knowledge), ''Karma marga'' (path of works), ''Rāja marga'' (path of contemplation and meditation).〔John Martin Sahajananda (2014), Fully Human Fully Divine, Partridge India, ISBN 978-1482819557, page 60〕〔KN Tiwari (2009), Comparative Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802933, page 31〕 The term ''bhakti'' has been usually translated as "devotion" in Orientalist literature.〔Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 15-24〕 The colonial era authors variously described ''Bhakti'' as a form of mysticism or "primitive" religious devotion of lay people with monotheistic parallels.〔Paul Carus, , pages 514-515〕〔DG Mandelbaum (1966), Transcendental and Pragmatic Aspects of Religion, American Anthropologist, 68(5), pages 1174-1191〕〔DC Scott (1980), Hindu and Christian Bhakti: A Common Human Response to the Sacred, Indian Journal of Theology, 29(1), pages 12-32〕 However, modern scholars state "devotion" is a misleading and incomplete translation of ''bhakti''.〔 Many contemporary scholars have questioned this terminology, and most now trace the term ''bhakti'' as one of the several spiritual perspectives that emerged from reflections on the Vedic context and Hindu way of life. Bhakti in Indian religions is not a ritualistic devotion to a god or to religion, but participation in a path that includes behavior, ethics, mores and spirituality.〔 It involves, among other things, refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god.〔 Increasingly, instead of "devotion", the term "participation" is appearing in scholarly literature as a gloss for the term ''bhakti''.〔Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 23-24〕〔 David Lorenzen states that ''bhakti'' is an important term in Sikhism and Hinduism.〔David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256, pages 1-2〕 They both share numerous concepts and core spiritual ideas, but ''bhakti'' of ''nirguni'' (devotion to divine without attributes) is particularly significant in Sikhism.〔〔Hardip Syan (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199699308, page 178〕〔A Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in ''Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia'' (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415595971, page 188-190〕 In Hinduism, diverse ideas continue, where both ''saguni'' and ''nirguni'' bhakti (devotion to divine with or without attributes) or alternate paths to spirituality are among the options left to the choice of a Hindu.〔〔 "Bhakthi" is also used as a unisex name. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Bhakti」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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