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The game of chess is commonly divided into three phases: the opening, middlegame, and endgame.〔John Watson, ''Secrets of Modern Chess Strategy: Advances Since Nimzowitsch'', Gambit Publications, 1998, p. 10. ISBN 1-901983-07-2. ISBN 0-486-20290-9.〕 There is a large body of theory regarding how the game should be played in each of these phases, especially the opening and endgame. Those who write about chess theory, who are often but not necessarily also eminent players, are referred to as "theorists" or "theoreticians". "Opening theory" commonly refers to consensus, broadly represented by current literature on the openings.〔David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld, ''The Oxford Companion to Chess'', Oxford University Press, 2nd ed. 1992, p. 418 ("theory" entry). ISBN 0-19-866164-9.〕 "Endgame theory" consists of statements regarding specific positions, or positions of a similar type, though there are few universally applicable principles.〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 418.〕 "Middlegame theory" often refers to maxims or principles applicable to the middlegame.〔Watson, ''Secrets of Modern Chess Strategy'', p. 10.〕 The modern trend, however, is to assign paramount importance to analysis of the specific position at hand rather than to general principles.〔Watson, ''Secrets of Modern Chess Strategy'', p. 11.〕 The development of theory in all of these areas has been assisted by the vast literature on the game. In 1913, preeminent chess historian H.J.R. Murray wrote in his 900-page magnum opus ''A History of Chess'' that, "The game possesses a literature which in contents probably exceeds that of all other games combined."〔H.J.R. Murray, ''A History of Chess'', Oxford University Press, 1913, p. 25. ISBN 0-19-827403-3. This quote is also given in Hooper and Whyld, p. 229 ("literature of chess" entry).〕 He estimated that at that time the "total number of books on chess, chess magazines, and newspapers devoting space regularly to the game probably exceeds 5,000".〔Murray, p. 25 n. 1.〕 In 1949, B. H. Wood opined that the number had increased to about 20,000.〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 229.〕〔See B. H. Wood, "Books About Chess", ''Illustrated London News'', 1949, reprinted in Fred Reinfeld (editor), ''The Treasury of Chess Lore'', Dover, 1959, pp. 268-70.〕 David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld wrote in 1992 that, "Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications. No one knows how many have been printed..."〔 The world's largest chess library, the John G. White Collection〔(The World's Greatest Chess Library )〕 at the Cleveland Public Library, contains over 32,000 chess books and serials, including over 6,000 bound volumes of chess periodicals.〔(Cleveland Public Library, Special Collections )〕〔(Special Chess Records (Susan Polgar) )〕 Chess players today also avail themselves of computer-based sources of information. ==Opening theory== The earliest printed work on chess theory whose date can be established with some exactitude is ''Repeticion de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez'' by the Spaniard Luis Ramirez de Lucena, published c. 1497, which included among other things analysis of eleven chess openings. Some of them are known today as the Giuoco Piano, Ruy Lopez, Petroff's Defense, Bishop's Opening, Damiano's Defense, and Scandinavian Defense, though Lucena did not use those terms.〔Harry Golombek, ''Chess: A History'', G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1976, pp. 97-101. ISBN 0-399-11575-7.〕 The authorship and date of the Göttingen manuscript are not established,〔Murray, p. 782.〕〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 156 ("Göttingen manuscript" entry).〕 and its publication date is estimated as being somewhere between 1471 and 1505.〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 156.〕 It is not known whether it or Lucena's book was published first.〔 The manuscript included examples of games with the openings now known as Damiano's Defence, Philidor's Defense, the Giuoco Piano, Petroff's Defense, the Bishop's Opening, the Ruy Lopez, the Ponziani Opening, the Queen's Gambit Accepted, 1.d4 d5 2.Bf4 Bf5 (a form of the London System), Bird's Opening, and the English Opening.〔Murray, pp. 782-84.〕 Murray observes that it "is no haphazard collection of commencements of games, but is an attempt to deal with the Openings in a systematic way."〔Murray, p. 784.〕 Fifteen years after Lucena's book, Portuguese apothecary Pedro Damiano published the book ''Questo libro e da imparare giocare a scachi et de la partiti'' (1512) in Rome. It included analysis of the Queen's Gambit Accepted, showing what happens when Black tries to keep the gambit pawn with ...b5.〔Golombek, pp. 101–02.〕 Damiano's book "was, in contemporary terms, the first bestseller of the modern game."〔Richard Eales, ''Chess: The History of a Game'', Facts on File Publications, 1985, p. 81. ISBN 0-8160-1195-8.〕 Harry Golombek writes that it "ran through eight editions in the sixteenth century and continued on into the next century with unflagging popularity."〔Golombek, p. 102.〕 Modern players know Damiano primarily because his name is attached to the weak opening Damiano's Defense (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 f6?), although he condemned rather than endorsed it.〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 101 ("Damiano Defence" entry).〕 These books and later ones discussed games played with various openings, opening traps, and the best way for both sides to play. Certain sequences of opening moves began to be given names, some of the earliest being Damiano's Defense, the King's Gambit (1.e4 e5 2.f4), the Queen's Gambit (1.d4 d5 2.c4), and the Sicilian Defense (1.e4 c5).〔Murray, p. 886.〕 Damiano's book was followed by general treatises on chess play by Ruy López de Segura (1561), Giulio Cesare Polerio (1590), Gioachino Greco (c. 1625), Joseph Bertin (1735), and François-André Danican Philidor (1749).〔I.A. Horowitz, ''Chess Openings: Theory and Practice'', Simon and Schuster, 1964.〕〔Hooper and Whyld, pp. 38–39 ("Bertin, Joseph" entry), 157-58 ("Greco, Gioacchino" entry).〕 The first author to attempt a comprehensive survey of the openings then known was Aaron Alexandre in his 1837 work ''Encyclopedie des echecs''.〔Hooper and Whyld, pp. 10, 280 ("Alexandre, Aaron" and "openings literature" entries).〕 According to Hooper and Whyld, "() Jaenisch produced the first openings analysis on modern lines in his ''Analyse nouvelle des ouvertures'' (1842-43)."〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 280.〕 In 1843, Paul Rudolf von Bilguer published the German ''Handbuch des Schachspiels'', which combined the virtues of Alexandre and Jaenisch's works.〔 The ''Handbuch'', which went through several editions, last being published in several parts in 1912–16, was one of the most important opening references for many decades.〔"Bilguer's ''Handbuch'' was the dominant reference for some time until it was superseded by a number of international treatises, which, in the English-speaking world, included ''Modern Chess Openings'' and ''Practical Chess Openings''." I.A. Horowitz, ''Chess Openings: Theory and Practice'', Simon and Schuster, 1964, p. VII. Four years after the first edition of the ''Handbuch'' was published, Howard Staunton in the preface to ''The Chess-Player's Handbook'', discussed below, called the ''Handbuch'' "a production—whether considered in reference to its research, its suggestiveness, or the methodical completeness of its arrangement—which stands unrivalled and alone". Howard Staunton, ''The Chess-Player's Handbook'', Henry C. Bohn, 1847, p. vii.〕 The last edition of the ''Handbuch'' was edited by Carl Schlechter, who had drawn a match for the World Championship with Emanuel Lasker in 1910. International Master William Hartston called it "a superb work, perhaps the last to encase successfully the whole of chess knowledge within a single volume."〔William Hartston, ''The Kings of Chess'', Harper & Row, 1985, p. 87. ISBN 0-06-015358-X.〕 The English master Howard Staunton, perhaps the world's strongest player from 1843 to 1851,〔Statistician Arpad Elo, developer of the Elo rating system, analyzed the results of all 342 match, tournament, and exhibition games of record among the top nine players in the world from 1846 to 1862. From those games, he estimated the ratings of the top players during that period as 1. Paul Morphy 2695; 2. Adolf Anderssen 2552; 3. Daniel Harrwitz 2518; 4. Ignatz Kolisch 2516; 5. Staunton 2508. Arpad E. Elo, ''The Rating of Chessplayers, Past and Present'', Arco Publishing, 1978, p. 55–56. ISBN 0-668-04721-6. Staunton was arguably the strongest player in the world between 1843, when he won a match against the French champion Pierre Charles Fournier de Saint-Amant, and 1851, when he finished fourth in the London 1851 knock-out tournament, won by Anderssen.〕 included over 300 pages of analysis of the openings in his 1847 treatise ''The Chess Player's Handbook.''〔Staunton, pp. 59–401.〕 That work immediately became the standard reference work in English-speaking countries,〔Hooper and Whyld state that it "became the standard reference work in English-speaking countries." Hooper and Whyld, p. 280 ("Openings literature" entry).〕〔Murray states that the book "took rank at once as the leading English text-book on chess." Murray, p. 885.〕 and was reprinted 21 times by 1935.〔Richard Eales, Chess: The History of a Game, Facts on File Publications, 1985, p. 137 (the book "became the standard reference work for English club players down to the end of the century, with twenty-one reprints by 1935"). ISBN 0-8160-1195-8.〕 However, "as time passed a demand arose for more up-to-date works in English".〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 280 ("Openings literature" entry).〕 Wilhelm Steinitz, the first World Champion, widely considered the "father of modern chess,"〔Garry Kasparov, ''My Great Predecessors, Part I'', Everyman Publishers, 2003, pp. 45–46. ISBN 1-85744-330-6.〕〔Emanuel Lasker, ''Lasker's Manual of Chess'', Dover Publications, 1960, pp. 188–229. ISBN 0-486-20640-8.〕〔Richard Réti, ''Masters of the Chessboard'', Dover Publications, 1976, pp. 47–49. ISBN 0-486-23384-7.〕〔Anthony Saidy, ''The Battle of Chess Ideas'', RHM Press, 1975, pp. 20–21. ISBN 0-89058-018-9.〕 extensively analyzed various double king-pawn openings (beginning 1.e4 e5) in his book ''The Modern Chess Instructor'', published in 1889 and 1895.〔Wilhelm Steinitz, ''The Modern Chess Instructor'', Edition Olms AG, Zürich, 1990 (reprint). ISBN 3-283-00111-1.〕 Also in 1889, E. Freeborough and the Reverend C.E. Ranken published the first edition of ''Chess Openings Ancient and Modern''; later editions were published in 1893, 1896, and 1910.〔(Review of Chess Openings Ancient & Modern )〕 In 1911, R.C. Griffith and J.H. White published the first edition of ''Modern Chess Openings''. It is now the longest-published opening treatise in history; the fifteenth edition (commonly called ''MCO-15''), by Grandmaster Nick de Firmian, was published in April 2008.〔Nick de Firmian, ''Modern Chess Openings, 15th Edition'', McKay Chess Library, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8129-3682-7.〕 According to Hooper and Whyld, the various editions of ''Modern Chess Openings'', the last edition of the ''Handbuch'', and the fourth edition of Ludvig Collijn's ''Larobok'' (in Swedish), with groundbreaking contributions by Rubinstein, Reti, Spielmann and Nimzowitch "were the popular reference sources for strong players between the two world wars."〔 In 1937-39 former World Champion Max Euwe published a twelve-volume opening treatise, ''De theorie der schaakopeningen'', in Dutch. It was later translated into other languages.〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 281 ("Openings literature" entry).〕 In the late 1930s to early 1950s Reuben Fine, one of the world's strongest players,〔Fine tied for first with Paul Keres at AVRO 1938, at the time the strongest tournament ever held, ahead of such players as reigning world champion Alexander Alekhine, former world champion José Raúl Capablanca, and future world champion Mikhail Botvinnik. After Alekhine's death in 1946, Fine was invited to participate in the match-tournament to select the new champion, but declined in order to pursue his study of psychoanalysis. "From about 1936 to 1951, when he practically gave up competitive chess, Fine was among the strongest eight players in the world." David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld, ''The Oxford Companion to Chess'', Oxford University Press, 1984, p. 113. ISBN 0-19-217540-8.〕 also became one of its leading theoreticians, publishing important works on the opening, middlegame, and endgame. These began with his revision of ''Modern Chess Openings'', which was published in 1939.〔R.C. Griffith, J.H. White, Reuben Fine, and P.W. Sergeant, ''Modern Chess Openings'', David McKay (6th ed. 1939).〕 In 1943, he published ''Ideas Behind the Chess Openings'', which sought to explain the principles underlying the openings.〔Reuben Fine, ''Ideas Behind the Chess Openings'', David McKay, 1943.〕 In 1948, he published his own opening treatise, ''Practical Chess Openings'', a competitor to ''MCO''.〔Reuben Fine, ''Practical Chess Openings'', David McKay, 1948.〕 In 1964, International Master I.A. Horowitz published the 789-page tome ''Chess Openings: Theory and Practice'', which in addition to opening analysis included a large number of illustrative games.〔 In 1966, the first volume of ''Chess Informant'' was published in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, containing 466 annotated games from the leading chess tournaments and matches of the day.〔''Chess Informant'', Volume 1, Beograd, 1966.〕 The hugely influential ''Chess Informant'' series has revolutionized opening theory. Its great innovation was that it expressed games in languageless figurine algebraic notation and annotated them using no words, but rather seventeen symbols, whose meanings were explained at the beginning of the book in six different languages. This enabled readers around the world to read the same games and annotations, thus greatly accelerating the dissemination of chess ideas and the development of opening theory. The editors of ''Chess Informant'' later introduced other publications using the same principle, such as the five-volume ''Encyclopedia of Chess Openings'' and ''Encyclopedia of Chess Endings'' treatises. ''Chess Informant'' was originally published twice a year, and since 1991 has been published thrice annually. Volume 100 was published in 2007.〔''Chess Informant'', Volume 100, Šahovski Informator, 2007. ISSN 0351-1375.〕 It now uses 57 symbols, explained in 10 languages, to annotate games (see punctuation (chess)), and is available in both print and electronic formats. In 2005, former World Champion Garry Kasparov wrote, "We are all Children of the ''Informant''."〔(The Best of Chess Informant ): Garry Kasparov〕 In the 1990s and thereafter, the development of opening theory has been further accelerated by such innovations as extremely strong chess engines such as Fritz and Rybka, software such as ChessBase, and the sale of multi-million-game databases such as ChessBase's Mega 2013 database, with over 5.4 million games.〔(The new Mega Database 2013 is shipping )〕 Today, the most important openings have been analyzed over 20 moves deep,〔For example, various lines of the Botvinnik Variation of the Semi-Slav Defense (1.d4 d5 2.c4 c6 3.Nf3 Nf6 4.Nc3 e6 5.Bg5 dxc4 6.e4 b5 7.e5 h6 8.Bh4 g5 9.Nxg5 hxg5 10.Bxg5 Nbd7) have been analyzed more than 30 moves deep. John Watson, ''Mastering the Chess Openings, Volume 2'', Gambit Publications, 2007, p. 101. ISBN 978-1-904600-69-5. ''Nunn's Chess Openings'' (1999), a one-volume treatise that does not go into as much detail as more specialized opening manuals, analyzed one line of the Botvinnik Variation to a draw by perpetual check after 44 moves. John Nunn, Graham Burgess, John Emms, and Joe Gallagher, ''Nunn's Chess Openings'', Everyman Publishers, 1999, p. 407 n. 41. ISBN 1-85744-221-0. Vladimir Kramnik learned after his game with Viswanathan Anand at the London Chess Classic 2014, also a Botvinnik Variation, that the first 40 moves of the game had occurred in 10 prior games, all played by computer programs. ''New in Chess'' Magazine 2015, No. 1, p. 34.〕 sometimes well into the endgame,〔GM Alexander Kotov mentions an instance from the 1950 Candidates Tournament where GM David Bronstein, "who for years worked closely with (Isaac ) Boleslavsky", expressed surprise that the latter was thinking for a long time about his next move in a game against GM Gideon Ståhlberg. Bronstein remarked that "this position has been analyzed by us far into the end game". Alexander Kotov, "Why the Russians?", ''Chessworld'', January–February 1964, pp. 62–69, at 69. Kotov wrote that the Soviets had analyzed many opening variations "far into the end game". ''Id.''〕〔For instance, GM Andrew Soltis mentions a line in the Dragon Variation of the Sicilian Defense that begins 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 g6 6.Be3 Bg7 7.f3 Nc6 8.Qd2 0-0 9.Bc4 Nxd4 10.Qxd4 Qa5 11.0-0-0 Be6 12.Bb3 b5 13.Kb1 Rfc8 14.Rhe1! Bxb3 15.cxb3 b4 16.Bxf6! bxc3 17.Bxc3 Bxc3 18.bxc3 Qxc3 19.Qxc3 Rxc3 20.Rc1! Rac8 21.Rxc3 Rxc3 22.Rc1! Rxc1+ 23.Kxc1. Soltis writes that since this position began appearing 30 years ago "it's looked more and more like a forced win for White because he can create an outside passed pawn. A recent analysis in ''New in Chess'' concluded that White's win is certain-once you get to move 69." Andrew Soltis, "Chess to Enjoy" column, "The Neutron Bomb Middlegame", ''Chess Life'', October 2006, p. 10.〕 and it is not unusual for leading players to introduce theoretical novelties on move 25 or even later.〔For example, John L. Watson writes of the Marshall Attack in the Ruy Lopez, "When I opened a book on the Marshall Attack ... I learned that for the 'old main line' (which is still extremely popular), 'the real struggle begins around move 30'! And in fact, correspondence chess games sometimes take it a step further, with one side playing a new move as the endgame begins!" John Watson, ''Mastering the Chess Openings, Volume 1'', Gambit Publications, 2006, pp. 161–62. ISBN 978-1-904600-60-2.〕〔In (Shulman–Marin, Reykjavik Open 2009 ), Marin played a theoretical novelty on move 34 in the Exchange Variation of the Grünfeld Defense. ''Chess Informant'', ''1000 TN!! The Best Theoretical Novelties'', 2012, pp. 579–80.〕〔In the Sveshnikov Variation of the Sicilian Defense, another heavily analyzed line, the game O. Korneev–M. Devereaux, Port Erin 2006, featured a theoretical novelty on Black's 29th move, improving on a previous high-level game Topalov–Leko, Linares 2005. John Cox, ''Starting Out: Sicilian Sveshnikov'', Gloucester Publishers, 2007, pp. 118–23. ISBN 978-1-85744-431-5. See (Topalov-Leko, Linares 2005 ); (Korneev-Devereaux, Port Erin 2006 ).〕 Thousands of books have been written on chess openings. These include both comprehensive openings encyclopedias such as the ''Encyclopedia of Chess Openings'' and ''Modern Chess Openings''; general treatises on how to play the opening such as ''Mastering the Chess Openings'' (in four volumes), by International Master John L. Watson;〔''Mastering the Chess Openings, Volume 1'', cited above.〕 and myriad books on specific openings, such as ''Understanding the Grünfeld''〔Jonathan Rowson, ''Understanding the Grünfeld'', Gambit Publications, 1999. ISBN 1-901983-09-9.〕 and ''Chess Explained: The Classical Sicilian''.〔Alex Yermolinsky, ''Chess Explained: The Classical Sicilian'', Gambit Publications, 2006. ISBN 1-904600-42-5.〕 "Books and monographs on openings are popular, and as they are thought to become out of date quickly there is a steady supply of new titles."〔Hooper and Whyld, p. 230 ("literature of chess" entry).〕 According to Andrew Soltis, "Virtually all the new information about chess since 1930 has been in the opening."〔Andrew Soltis, "Tools of the Trade . . .", ''Chess Life'', July 1995, p. 14.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Chess theory」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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