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Co-creation is a management initiative, or form of economic strategy, that brings different parties together (for instance, a company and a group of customers), in order to jointly produce a mutually valued outcome.〔Prahalad, C.K.; Ramaswamy, V. (2004) "Co-Creation Experiences: The Next Practice in Value Creation". ''Journal of Interactive Marketing''. Volume 18, Number 3.〕 Co-created value arises in the form of personalized, unique experiences for the customer (value-in-use) and ongoing revenue, learning and enhanced market performance drivers for the firm (loyalty, relationships, customer word of mouth). Value is co-created with customers if and when a customer is able to personalize his or her experience using a firm's product-service propositionin the lifetime of its useto a level that is best suited to get his or her job(s) or tasks done and which allows the firm to derive greater value from its product-service investment in the form of new knowledge, higher revenues/profitability and/or superior brand value/loyalty.〔(Wim Rampen - My Personal Definition of Business with Customer Value Co-Creation and comments by Chris Lawer ).〕 Scholars C. K. Prahalad and Venkat Ramaswamy popularized the concept in their 2000 ''Harvard Business Review'' article, "Co-Opting Customer Competence".〔Prahalad, C.K.; Ramaswamy, V. (January–February 2000) "Co-Opting Customer Competence". ''Harvard Business Review''.〕 They developed their arguments further in their book, published by the Harvard Business School Press, ''The Future of Competition'', where they offered examples including Napster and Netflix showing that customers would no longer be satisfied with making yes or no decisions on what a company offers.〔Prahalad, C.K.; Ramaswamy, Venkat (2004) ''The Future of Competition''. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 1-57851-953-5.〕 == From co-production to co-creation == In their review of the literature on "customer participation in production", Neeli Bendapudi and Robert P. Leone found that the first academic work dates back to 1979.〔Bendapudi, Neeli; Leone, Robert P. (January 2003). "Psychological Implications of Customer Participation in Co-Production" ''Journal of Marketing''. Vol. 67, No. 1.〕 From 1990 onwards, new themes are emerging: John Czepiel suggests that customer's participation may lead to greater customer's satisfaction.〔Czepiel, John A. (1990), "Service Encounters and Service Relationships: Implications for Research". ''Journal of Business Research''. 20 (1), 13-21.〕 Scott Kelley, James Donnelly and Steven J. Skinner are dealing with productivity but suggest other ways to look at customer participation: quality, employee's performance, and emotional responses.〔Kelley, Scott W.; Donnelly Jr., James H.; Skinner, Steven J. (1990), "Customer Participation in Service Production and Delivery". ''Journal of Retailing''. 66 (3), 315–35.〕 Although not reviewed by Bendapuli and Leone, the groundbreaking article by R. Normann and R. Ramirez suggests that successful companies do not focus on themselves or even on the industry but on the value-creating system.〔Normann, R.; Ramirez, R. (July–August 1993) "From Value Chain to Value Constellation: Designing Interactive Strategy". ''Harvard Business Review''. pp. 65–77.〕 Michel, Vargo and Lusch recognize the influence of Normann on their own work and acknowledge similarity between the concepts of co-production and co-creation: "his customer co-production mirrors the similar concept found in FP6".〔Michel, S.; Vargo, S. L.; Lusch, R. F. (2008). "Reconfiguration of the Conceptual Landscape: A Tribute to the Service Logic of Richard Normann". ''Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science''. 36:152–155.〕 The authors suggest that Normann enriched the S-D Logic particularly through his idea of "density" of offerings. In a letter sent to the editor of the ''Harvard Business Review'' in reaction to an article by Pine, Peppers and Roger ("Do you want to keep your customers forever"), Michael Schrage argues that not all customers are alike in their capacity to bring some kind of knowledge to the firm.〔Schrage, M. (July–August 1995). "Customer Relations". ''Harvard Business Review''. pp. 154–156.〕 Wikström sees the role of consumers changing.〔Wikström, S. (1996). "Value Creation by Company-Consumer Interaction". ''Journal of Marketing Management''. 12, 359–374.〕 Firat, Fuat, Dholakia, and Venkatesh introduced the concept of customerization (which is a buyer-centric evolution of the mass-customization process) and stated that it enables consumers to serve as "the co-producer of the product and service offering".〔Firat, A. Fuat; Dholakia, Nikhilesh; Venkatesh, Alladi (1995). "Liberatory Postmodernism and the Reenchantment of Consumption". ''Journal of Consumer Research'', 22 (3), 239–67.〕 However, Bendapudi and Leone (2003) concluded in an empirical paper that "the assumption of greater customization under co-production may hold only when the customer has the expertise to craft a good or service to his or her liking".〔 At the turn of the century, Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2000) produced another important piece of work and built further on Normann and Ramirez's ideas.〔 In 2004, Prahalad and Ramaswamy kept working on their original idea published four years earlier.〔Prahalad, C.K.; Ramaswamy, V. (2004) "Co-Creation Experiences: The Next Practice In Value Creation". ''Journal Of Interactive Marketing''. Volume 18; Number 3.〕 At the same time, Vargo and Lush (2004) published on the service-dominant logic of marketing. The process of value creation is dealt with in FP6. Opposing the goods-dominant logic and the service-dominant logic, the authors state: "the customer is always a coproducer". FP6 will be later (Vargo and Lush, 2006) altered in "the customer is always a co-creator". Prahalad commented in an issue of the ''Journal of Marketing'' on Vargo and Lusch's FP6 and found that the authors did not go far enough.〔Prahalad, C.K. (January 2004). "The Cocreation of Value in 'Invited Commentaries' on 'Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing'". ''Journal of Marketing''. Vol. 68. pp. 18–27.〕 In the same book, Kalaignanam and Varadarajan (2006) also follow Prahalad's comments and elaborate on the IT implications on coproduction. As the authors put it "developments in information technology () enable customers to create value by collaborating with the firm". The main contribution of the authors in this article is a conceptual model of the intensity of customer participation as function of product characteristics, market and customer characteristics, firm characteristics. In their conclusions and directions for future research the authors deal with three promising topics. First they propose to study supply-side issues and how increasing communication, participation from the customers and the emergence of communities enable customers to interact between them, sometimes leading to new creations. Second they see the "locus of innovation" as of interest and in particular how the shift of firm-centric networks to user-centric networks can lead to increased innovation capabilities. Third they wonder whether demand-side issues may not result in negative consequences on satisfaction. The third issue is already mentioned by Bendapuli and Leone: "A customer who believes he or she has the expertise and chooses to co-produce may be more likely to make self-attributions for success and failure than a customer who lacks the expertise. A customer who lacks the expertise but feels forced to co-produce () may make more negative attributions about co-production".〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Co-creation」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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