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Decentralization or decentralisation is the process of redistributing or dispersing functions, powers, people or things away from a central location or authority.〔(Definition of decentralization ), TheFreeDictionary.com, ''accessed February 4, 2013.''〕〔(Definition of decentralization ), Merriam-Webster Dictionary, ''accessed February 4, 2013.''〕 While centralization, especially in the governmental sphere, is widely studied and practiced, there is no common definition or understanding of decentralization. The meaning of decentralization may vary in part because of the different ways it is applied.〔(Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions ), Joint UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)-Government of Germany evaluation of the UNDP role in decentralization and local governance, at the United Nations Development Programme website, October 1999, p. 1, 3-6. Quote: "In fact, a quick review of the literature shows that there is no common definition or understanding of decentralization, although much work has gone into exploring its differing applications."〕 Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and management science in private businesses and organizations, political science, law and public administration, economics and technology. ==History== The word "centralization" came into use in France in 1794 as the post-French Revolution French Directory leadership created a new government structure. The word "decentralization" came into usage in the 1820s.〔Vivien A. Schmidt, ''Democratizing France: The Political and Administrative History of Decentralization'', Cambridge University Press, 2007, (p. 22 ), ISBN 9780521036054〕 "Centralization" entered written English in the first third of the 1800s;〔Barbara Levick, ''Claudius'', Psychology Press, 2012, (p. 81 ), ISBN 9780415166195〕 mentions of decentralization also first appear during those years. In the mid-1800s Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that the French Revolution began with "a push towards decentralization...(became, )in the end, an extension of centralization."〔Vivien A. Schmidt, ''Democratizing France: The Political and Administrative History of Decentralization'', (p. 10 ).〕 In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article called “Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics of government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French efforts at decentralization of government functions.〔Robert Leroux, ''French Liberalism in the 19th Century: An Anthology'', Chapter 6: Maurice Block on "Decentralization", Routledge, 2012, (p. 255 ), ISBN 9781136313011〕 Ideas of liberty and decentralization were carried to their logical conclusions during the 19th and 20th centuries by anti-state political activists calling themselves "anarchists", "libertarians and even decentralists. Alexis de Tocqueville was an advocate, writing: "Decentralization has, not only an administrative value, but also a civic dimension, since it increases the opportunities for citizens to take interest in public affairs; it makes them get accustomed to using freedom. And from the accumulation of these local, active, persnickety freedoms, is born the most efficient counterweight against the claims of the central government, even if it were supported by an impersonal, collective will."〔(A History of Decentralization ), Earth Institute of Columbia University website, ''accessed February 4, 2013''.〕 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), influential anarchist theorist〔 * * 〕 wrote: "All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can be summed up in the words: agricultural-industrial federation. All my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or decentralization."〔"Du principe Fédératif" ("Principle of Federation"), 1863.〕 In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of economic wealth and political power was a decentralist movement. It blamed large-scale industrial production for destroying middle class shop keepers and small manufacturers and promoted increased property ownership and a return to small scale living. The decentralist movement attracted Southern Agrarians like Robert Penn Warren, as well as journalist Herbert Agar.〔Craig R. Prentiss, ''Debating God's Economy: Social Justice in America on the Eve of Vatican II,'' Penn State Press, 2008, (p. 43 ), ISBN 9780271033419〕 New Left and libertarian individuals who identified with social, economic, and often political decentralism through the ensuing years included Ralph Borsodi, Wendell Berry, Paul Goodman, Carl Oglesby, Karl Hess, Donald Livingston, Kirkpatrick Sale (author of ''Human Scale''), Murray Bookchin,〔David De Leon, ''Leaders from the 1960s: A Biographical Sourcebook of American Activism'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994, (p. 297 ), ISBN 9780313274145〕 Dorothy Day,〔Nancy L. Roberts, ''Dorothy Day and the Catholic worker,'' Volume 84, Issue 1 of National security essay series, State University of New York Press, 1984, (p. 11 ), ISBN 9780873959391〕 Senator Mark O. Hatfield,〔Jesse Walker, (Mark O. Hatfield, RIP ), Reason, August 8, 2011.〕 Mildred J. Loomis〔Mildred J. Loomis, ''Decentralism: Where It Came From - Where Is It Going?'', Black Rose Books, 2005, ISBN 9781551642499〕 and Bill Kauffman.〔Bill Kauffman, ''Bye Bye, Miss American Empire: Neighborhood Patriots, Backcountry rebels'', Chelsea Green Publishing, 2010, (p xxxi ), ISBN 9781933392806〕 Leopold Kohr, author of the 1957 book ''The Breakdown of Nations''—known for its statement “Whenever something is wrong, something is too big”—was a major influence on E.F. Schumacher, author of the 1973 bestseller ''Small is Beautiful:Economics As If People Mattered ''.〔(Dr. Leopold Kohr, 84; Backed Smaller States ), New York Times obituary, February 28, 1994.〕〔John Fullerton, (The Relevance of E. F. Schumacher in the 21st Century ), New Economics Institute, ''accessed February 7, 2013.''〕 In the next few years a number of best-selling books promoted decentralization. Daniel Bell's ''The Coming of Post-Industrial Society'' discussed the need for decentralization and a “comprehensive overhaul of government structure to find the appropriate size and scope of units”, as well as the need to detach functions from current state boundaries, creating regions based on functions like water, transport, education and economics which might have “different ‘overlays’ on the map.”〔W. Patrick McCray, ''The Visioneers: How a Group of Elite Scientists Pursued Space Colonies, Nanotechnlogies, and a Limitless Future'', Princeton University Press, 2012, (p. 70 ), ISBN 9780691139838〕〔Daniel Bell, ''The Coming Of Post-industrial Society'', Basic Books version, 2008, (p. 320-321 ), ISBN 9780786724734〕 Alvin Toffler published ''Future Shock'' (1970) and ''The Third Wave'' (1980). Discussing the books in a later interview, Toffler said that industrial-style, centralized, top-down bureaucratic planning would be replaced by a more open, democratic, decentralized style which he called “anticipatory democracy.”〔Alvin Toffler, ''Previews & Premises: An Interview with the Author of Future Shock and The Third Wave,'' Black Rose books, 1987, (p. 50 ), ISBN 9780920057377〕 Futurist John Naisbitt's 1982 book “Megatrends” was on The New York Times Best Seller list for more than two years and sold 14 million copies.〔(John Naisbitt biography ) at personal website, ''accessed February 10, 2013''.〕 Naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is from centralization to decentralization.〔Sam Inkinen, ''Mediapolis: Aspects of Texts, Hypertexts and Multimedial Communication,'' Volume 25 of Research in Text Theory, Walter de Gruyter, 1999, (p. 272 ), ISBN 9783110807059〕 In 1996 David Osborne and Ted Gaebler had a best selling book ''Reinventing Government'' proposing decentralist public administration theories which became labeled the "New Public Management".〔Public Administration Review, Vol. 56, No. 3 (May - June, 1996), pp. 247-255.〕 Stephen Cummings wrote that decentralization became a "revolutionary megatrend" in the 1980s.〔Stephen Cummings, ''ReCreating Strategy'', SAGE, 2002, (p. 157 ), ISBN 9780857026514〕 In 1983 Diana Conyers asked if decentralization was the "latest fashion" in development administration.〔Diana Conyers, ("Decentralization: The latest fashion in development administration?" ), Public Administration and Development, Volume 3, Issue 2, pages 97–109, April/June 1983, via Wiley Online Library, ''accessed February 4, 2013''.〕 Cornell University's project on Restructuring Local Government states that decentralization refers to the "global trend" of devolving responsibilities to regional or local governments.〔(Decentralization ), article at the “(Restructuring local government project )” of Dr. Mildred Warner, Cornell University, ''accessed February 4, 2013''.〕 Robert J. Bennett's ''Decentralization, Intergovernmental Relations and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda'' describes how after World War II governments pursued a centralized "welfarist" policy of entitlements which now has become a "post-welfare" policy of intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.〔 According to a 1999 United Nations Development Programme report: 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Decentralization」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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