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A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often listed alphabetically (or by radical and stroke for ideographic languages), with usage of information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, translation, and other information;〔Webster's New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, 2002〕 or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon.〔 It is a lexicographical product designed for utility and function, curated with selected data, presented in a way that shows inter-relationships among the data.〔Cite journal |author = Nielsen, Sandro |year = 2008 |title = The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use | url = | journal = Lexikos |volume = 18 |issn= 1684-4904 |pages = 170–189〕 A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries do not contain information about words that are used in language for general purposes—words used by ordinary people in everyday situations. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether lexicology and terminology are two different fields of study. In theory, general dictionaries are supposed to be semasiological, mapping word to definition, while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be onomasiological, first identifying concepts and then establishing the terms used to designate them. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types.〔Sterkenburg 2003, pp. 155–157〕 There are other types of dictionaries that don't fit neatly in the above distinction, for instance bilingual (translation) dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms (thesauri), or rhyming dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a monolingual general-purpose dictionary.〔Sterkenburg 2003, pp. 3–4〕 A different dimension on which dictionaries (usually just general-purpose ones) are sometimes distinguished is whether they are ''prescriptive'' or ''descriptive'', the latter being in theory largely based on linguistic corpus studies—this is the case of most modern dictionaries. However, this distinction cannot be upheld in the strictest sense. The choice of headwords is considered itself of prescriptive nature; for instance, dictionaries avoid having too many taboo words in that position. Stylistic indications (e.g. ‘informal’ or ‘vulgar’) present in many modern dictionaries is considered less than objectively descriptive as well.〔Sterkenburg 2003, p. 7〕 Although the first recorded dictionaries date back to Sumerian times (these were bilingual dictionaries), the systematic study of dictionaries as objects of scientific interest themselves is a 20th-century enterprise, called lexicography, and largely initiated by Ladislav Zgusta.〔 The birth of the new discipline was not without controversy, the practical dictionary-makers being sometimes accused by others of "astonishing" lack of method and critical-self reflection. ==History== The oldest known dictionaries were Akkadian Empire cuneiform tablets with bilingual Sumerian–Akkadian wordlists, discovered in Ebla (modern Syria) and dated roughly 2300 BCE. The early 2nd millennium BCE ''Urra=hubullu'' glossary is the canonical Babylonian version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A Chinese dictionary, the c. 3rd century BCE ''Erya'', was the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; although some sources cite the c. 800 BCE Shizhoupian as a "dictionary", modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of Chinese characters from Zhou dynasty bronzes. Philitas of Cos (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary ''Disorderly Words'' (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, ') which explained the meanings of rare Homeric and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms. Apollonius the Sophist (fl. 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon.〔 The first Sanskrit dictionary, the Amarakośa, was written by Amara Sinha c. 4th century CE. Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words. According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', the first Japanese dictionary was the long-lost 682 CE ''Niina'' glossary of Chinese characters. The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the c. 835 CE ''Tenrei Banshō Meigi'', was also a glossary of written Chinese. A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, Sanas Cormaic, contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In India around 1320, Amir Khusro compliled the Khaliq-e-bari which mainly dealt with Hindvi and Persian words. Arabic dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries CE, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the radicals, or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the ''Lisan al-`Arab'' (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and ''al-Qamus al-Muhit'' (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The ''Qamus al-Muhit'' is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the ''Lisan'' and the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.〔"Ḳāmūs", J. Eckmann, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', 2nd ed., Brill〕 In medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents for Latin words in vernacular or simpler Latin were in use (e.g. the Leiden Glossary). The ''Catholicon'' (1287) by Johannes Balbus, a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 Ambrogio Calepino's ''Dictionarium'' was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 Robert Estienne published the ''Thesaurus linguae latinae'' and in 1572 his son Henri Estienne published the ''Thesaurus linguae graecae'', which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual dictionary written in a Romance language was Sebastián Covarrubias' ''Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española'', published in 1611 in Madrid.〔''Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española'', edición integral e ilustrada de Ignacio Arellano y Rafael Zafra, Madrid, Iberoamericana-Vervuert, 2006, pg. XLIX.〕 In 1612 the first edition of the ''Vocabolario dell'Accademia della Crusca'', for Italian, was published. It served as the model for similar works in French, Spanish and English. In 1690 in Rotterdam was published, posthumously, the ''Dictionnaire Universel'' by Antoine Furetière for French. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the ''Dictionnaire de l'Académie française''. Between 1712 and 1721 was published the ''Vocabulario portughez e latino'' written by Raphael Bluteau. The Real Academia Española published the first edition of the ''Diccionario de la lengua española'' in 1780, but their ''Diccionario de Autoridades'', which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726. The ''Totius Latinitatis lexicon'' by Egidio Forcellini was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published. The first edition of ''A Greek-English Lexicon'' by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century. And in 1858 was published the first volume of the Deutsches Wörterbuch by the Brothers Grimm; the work was completed in 1961. Between 1861 and 1874 was published the ''Dizionario della lingua italiana'' by Niccolò Tommaseo. Émile Littré published the Dictionnaire de la langue française between 1863 and 1872. In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the ''Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal'' which was completed in 1998. Also in 1863 Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl published the ''Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language''. The Duden dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the prescriptive source for the spelling of German. The decision to start work on the ''Svenska Akademiens ordbok'' was taken in 1787.〔http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Dictionary」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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