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Dusios
In the Gaulish language, ''Dusios''〔Xavier Delamarre, ''Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise'' (Éditions Errance, 2003), p. 158. The Latinized form would be ''dusius'', most often in the plural ''dusii''.〕 was a divine being〔Perhaps a ''deus''. As late as the 13th century, Thomas Cantipratensis asserted that some people still regard groves as consecrated to ''dusii'' and entered them to sacrifice to "their own gods" (''suis diis'', dative plural of ''deus''); see discussion under Surviving tradition below. The 19th-century Celiticist Henri d'Arbois de Jubainville regarded the ''dusii'' as divinities who might be compared to aquatic deities of the Homeric tradition in Greece as lovers who begat children with mortal women; see "Esus, Tarvos trigaranus," ''Revue Celtique'' 19 (1898), pp. 228, 234–235, 251 (online ). With reference to a highly speculative etymological connection between ''dusios'' and the English word "dizzy," Arbois de Jubainville saw the effects of these spirits as comparable to those of the Greek nymphs or Italic lymphae. J.A. MacCulloch, ''The Religion of the Ancient Celts'' (Forgotten Books edition 2007, originally pub. 1911), p. 232 (online ) thought that the ''dusii'' "do not appear to represent the higher gods reduced to the form of demons by Christianity, but rather a species of lesser divinities, once the object of popular devotion."〕 among the continental Celts〔''Galli'' as designated by Augustine and Isidore (see following). In antiquity, ''Galli'' refers both to inhabitants of the geographical region ''Gallia'' as it was delineated by the Greeks and Romans, and to peoples who spoke a form of Celtic (that is, who spoke ''gallice'', "in Gaulish") or who were perceived by the Greeks and Romans as ethnically "Celtic." See J.H.C. Williams, ''Beyond the Rubicon: Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy'' (Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 1–17 ''et passim''.〕 who was identified with the god Pan of ancient Greek religion and with the gods Faunus, Inuus, Silvanus, and Incubus of ancient Roman religion. Like these deities, he〔Both ancient Greek and Latin categorize nouns within three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Although grammatical gender is distinguished from biological gender, Latin places humans (''homines''), animals (''animalia''), and anthropomorphic beings perceived as having sexual characteristics in their gender-specific category. Some "monsters" are neuter (the sea monster ''ketos'' in Greek, for instance). The ''dusii'' are masculine in both grammatical gender and in their sexual behavior in all the sources in which they appear, with the possible exception of Gervase of Tilbury, who seems to think they can also be female; see below. The Greco-Roman deities to whom they are compared are aggressively masculine, often depicted as ithyphallic.〕 might be seen as multiple in nature,〔The multiplicity of the group of deities to which the ''dusii'' belong — Pan/panes, Faunus/fauni, Inuus/inui, Silvanus/silvani, Incubus/incubi — is related to the question of monotheistic tendencies in ancient religion: "Lower gods were executors or manifestations of the divine will rather than independent principles of reality. Whether they are called gods, demons, angels, or ''numina'', these immortal beings are emanations of the One": Michele Renee Salzman, "Religious ''koine'' in Private Cult and Ritual: Shared Religious Traditions in Roman Religion in the First Half of the Fourth Century CE," in ''A Companion to Roman Religion'' (Blackwell, 2007), p. 113. The name of Pan was sometimes etymologized as meaning "All"; although scientific linguistics has shown this derivation to be incorrect, it appears in the ''Homeric Hymn to Pan'' (6th century BC) and influenced theological interpretations in antiquity, including the speculations of Plato: see H.J. Rose and Robin Hard, ''The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology'' (Routledge, 2004), p. 215 (online ), and David Sedley, ''Plato's Cratylus'' (Cambridge University Press) pp. 96–97 (online ), where Pan as "all" is connected to the ''logos'': "This is the climax of the divine etymologies." The "all-ness" of Pan accounted for his multiple manifestations, reflected by nominal plurals. On the distinction between modern scientific and ancient theological etymology, see Davide Del Bello, ''Forgotten Paths: Etymology and the Allegorical Mindset'' (Catholic University of America Press, 2007).〕 and referred to in the plural (''dusioi''), most commonly in Latin as ''dusii''. Although the Celtic Dusios is not described in late-antique sources independently of Greek and Roman deities, the common functionality of the others lay in their ability to impregnate animals and women, often by surprise or force. ''Dusii'' continue to play a role in the magico-religious belief systems of Gaul and Francia as a type of incubus in early-medieval paganism and Christianity.
==In Augustine and Isidore==
References to the ''dusii'' appear in the writings of the Church Fathers, where they are treated as demons.〔For further discussion, see Christianity and Paganism.〕 Early Christian writers still regarded the traditional religions of antiquity as potent competing belief systems. Rather than denying the existence of rival gods, they often sought to demonstrate their inferior nature through theological argument, ridicule, or demonization.〔For an extended discussion, see Carlos A. Contreras, "Christian Views of Paganism," ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt'' II.23.1 (1980) 974–1022, noting, for instance, the Church Fathers' habit of "applying Christian conceptions to pagan ideas in order to condemn them" (p. 1010 (online )). "Our knowledge of such things comes from Christian writers who are openly concerned to discredit all aspects of pagan idolatry," states Peter Stewart, ''Statues in Roman Society: Representation and Response'' (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 266, note 24 (online. )〕 Saint Augustine mentions the ''dusii'' in a passage criticizing the belief that early in the history of humanity angels could have bodily intercourse with mortal women, begetting the race of giants or heroes. Augustine redefines traditional beliefs within a Christian framework, and in this passage makes no firm distinction between the essential nature of angels and demons:〔Corinne J. Saunders, "'Symtyme the fende': Questions of Rape in ''Sir Gowther''," in ''Studies in English Language and Literature. 'Doubt Wisely': Papers in Honour of E.G. Stanley'' (Routledge, 1996), p. 296 ( online. )〕
One often hears talk, the reliability of which must not be doubted, since it is confirmed by a number of people who know from their own or others' experience, that Silvani and Pans, commonly called incubi, have often appeared to women as wicked men, trying to sleep with them and succeeding. These same demons, whom the Gauls name Dusii, are relentlessly committed to this defilement, attempting and achieving so many things of such a kind that to deny it would seem brazen. Based on this, I dare not risk a definitive statement as to whether there might be some spirits, aerial in substance (for this substance, when it is set in motion by a fan, is perceived as sensation within the body and as touch), who take bodily form and even experience this sexual desire, so that, by any means they can, they mingle with women sensually. But that the holy angels of God in no way fell in like manner during that era — that I would believe.〔Augustine of Hippo, ''De civitate Dei'' 15.23: ''Et quoniam creberrima fama est multique se expertos uel ab eis, qui experti essent, de quorum fide dubitandum non esset, audisse confirmant, Siluanos et Panes, quos uulgo incubos uocant, inprobos saepe extitisse mulieribus et earum appetisse ac peregisse concubitum; et quosdam daemones, quos Dusios Galli nuncupant, adsidue hanc inmunditiam et temptare et efficere, plures talesque adseuerant, ut hoc negare inpudentiae uideatur: non hinc aliquid audeo definire, utrum aliqui spiritus elemento aerio corporati (nam hoc elementum etiam cum agitatur flabello sensu corporis tactuque sentitur) possint hanc etiam pati libidinem, ut, quo modo possunt, sentientibus feminis misceantur. Dei tamen angelos sanctos nullo modo illo tempore sic labi potuisse crediderim''; for an alternative English translation by Marcus Dods, from ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', first series, vol. 2 (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1887), revised and edited by Kevin Knight, see ( New Advent. )〕
Isidore of Seville echoes Augustine closely, but expands the identifications with other divine figures:
The 'hairy ones' ''(pilosi)''〔For a discussion of "hairy demons", in early sources sometimes translated as satyrs, see Unclean spirit.〕 are called in Greek Pans, in Latin Incubi, or Inui from their entry ''(ineundo)'' with animals everywhere.〔"Everywhere" = Latin ''passim''; as with the theological interpretation of Pan's name as "All," the ubiquity of this type of divinity is emphasized.〕 Hence also Incubi are so called because wrongful sex〔Latin ''stuprandum'', gerund from ''stupro, stuprare'', refers to illicit sexual activity, including adultery and other sex outside marriage, participation in which renders the woman impure; consent is not at issue. The word is not a synonym for "rape," but does not exclude forced sex; ''Oxford Latin Dictionary'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), entries on ''stuprum'' (noun) and ''stupro'' (verb), p. 1832. See also discussion by Elaine Fantham, "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome," in ''Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian'' (Walter de Gruyter, 2011); and Victoria Emma Pagán, ''Conspiracy Narratives in Roman History'' (University of Texas Press, 2004), p. 58 (online ), where the penetration of the male as an act of ''stuprum'' is an emphasis.〕 is incumbent on them.〔A literal translation fails to capture the etymological echoes of ''incubi'' and ''incumbendo'': "Hence also the Incubi are named from 'lying on,' that is, from having wrongful sex."〕 For often the wicked ones come into the presence of women also, and succeed in sleeping with them. The Gauls call these demons Dusii, because they seduce〔Again Isidore's etymological echoes between ''Dusios'' and ''adsidue'' are lost in a literal translation; "because they relentlessly achieve this defilement."〕 relentlessly.〔Isidore of Seville, ''Etymologiae'' 8.11.103: ''Pilosi, qui Graece Panitae, Latine Incubi appellantur, sive Inui ab ineundo passim cum animalibus. Unde et Incubi dicuntur ab incumbendo, hoc est stuprando. Saepe enim inprobi existunt etiam mulieribus, et earum peragunt concubitum: quos daemones Galli Dusios vocant, quia adsidue hanc peragunt immunditiam''; Katherine Nell MacFarlane, "Isidore of Seville on the Pagan Gods (''Origines'' VIII. 11)," ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 70 (1980), pp. 36–37.〕
Isidore seems to be trying to derive ''dusius'' from the adverb ''adsidue'', "persistently, diligently, constantly." The word may be related to Scandinavian ''Tusse'', "fairy."〔MacFarlane, "Isidore of Seville on the Pagan Gods," p. 37.〕 More likely, it is related to a semantic field of Indo-European words, some meaning "phantom, vapor," as for example Lithuanian ''dvãse'', "spirit, phantom,"〔Ken Dowden, ''European Paganism: The Realities of Cult from Antiquity to the Middle Ages'' (Routledge, 2000), p. 306, note 57, finds the Lithuanian only "coincidentally similar," ''contra'' Delamarre following.〕 and ''dùsas'', "vapor"; and others meaning "fury" (Old Irish ''dás-'', "to be in a fury"), particularly in a divine sense, as Greek ''thuia'', "bacchante," and Latin ''furiae'' (the Furies). It is also possible, but less likely, that the word is a nominalization of the Gaulish prefix ''dus-'', "bad" (cf. Greek ''dys-'').〔Delamarre, entry on ''dusios'', ''Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise'', p. 158.〕 Whitley Stokes connected the ''dusii'' to Slavic ''dusi'' ("spirits"), ''dusa'' ("soul"), ''dusmus'' ("devil").〔Whitley Stokes, ''Transactions of the Philological Society'' (1867), p. 261, as cited by A. Smythe Palmer, ''Folk-Etymology, A Dictionary'' (London, 1882), p. 623. Additional etymological conjecture not necessarily premised on modern scientific linguistics include George Henderson, ''Survivals in Belief among the Celts'' (1911), p. 46; Charles Godfrey Leland, ''Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition'' pp. 126–129, with amusing anecdotes.〕 The Breton word ''duz'', a type of fairy, goblin, or changeling, is derived by many scholars from ''dusios''.〔Dowden, ''European Paganism'', p. 306, note 57; Édouard Le Héricher, ''Glossaire etymologique Anglo-Normand'' (Paris, 1884), p. 43 (online. )〕 ''Duz'' sometimes has been proffered as the origin of ''deuce'' as a name for "devil" in the expression "What the Deuce!"〔Palmer, ''Folk-Etymology'', p. 623; Henderson, ''Survivals in Belief'', p. 73.〕
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