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Exekias
Exekias (, ''Exēkías'') was an ancient Greek vase-painter and potter who was active in Athens between roughly 545 BC and 530 BC.〔John Boardman, "Exekias," ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 82 (1978): 13.〕 Exekias worked mainly in the black-figure technique, which involved the painting of scenes using a clay slip that fired to black, with details created through incision. Exekias is regarded by art historians as an artistic visionary whose masterful use of incision and psychologically sensitive compositions mark him as one of the greatest of all Attic vase painters.〔John Boardman, ''Athenian Black Figure Vases: A Handbook'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1974), 52.〕 The Andokides painter and the Lysippides Painter are thought to have been students of Exekias.〔Evelyn Elizabeth Bell, “An Exekian Puzzle in Portland: Further Light on the Relationship between Exekias and Group E,” in Ancient Greek and Art Iconography, ed. Warren G. Moon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), 85. Regarding Exekias' relationship to the Lysippides painter see J.D. Beazley,''Greek Vases: Lectures by J.D. Beazley'', ed. Donna Kurtz (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 9.〕
== Background ==
The works of Exekias are distinguished by their innovative compositions, precise draughtsmanship, and subtle psychological characterization, all of which transcend the inherent challenges of the black-figure technique. John Boardman, the eminent historian of Greek art, described Exekias' style as follows: "The hallmark of his style is a near statuesque dignity which brings vase painting for the first time close to claiming a place as a major art."〔Boardman, ''Athenian Black Figure Vases: A Handbook,'' 57.〕 He was an innovative painter and potter, who experimented with new shapes and devised unusual painting techniques, such as the use a coral-red slip, to enhance colour.
Fourteen signed works by Exekias have survived, while many more have been attributed to him based on the stylistic connoisseurship method developed by John Beazley.〔J.D. Beazley, ''Attic Black-Figure Vase-Painters'' (New York: Hacker Art Books, 1978), 143-49. See also J.D. Beazley, ''Paralipomena: Additions to Attic Black Figure Vase Painters and to Attic Red Figure Vase Painters'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 59-62; Thomas H. Carpenter, ''Beazley Addenda: Additional References to ABV, ARV, and Paralipomena'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 39-42. A total of 32 vases are attributed to Exekias as painter in the most recent study, E.A. Mackay, ''Tradition and Originality: A Study of Exekias'' (Oxford: BAR, 2010).〕 His signed pieces provide insight not only into the work of Exekias himself but also into the way ancient pottery workshops operated. Twelve of the fourteen vessels bearing his name refer to him not as their painter but as their potter, by adding the word ''epoíēsen'' (ἐποίησεν) to his name.〔J.D. Beazley, “Exekias,” ''The Development of Attic Black-Figure'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951; 1986), 58.〕 This may be translated as "Exekias made ()", in contrast to ''égrapsen'' (ἓγραψεν), which translates as "painted ()" (literally: "drew ()").〔John Boardman, ''The History of Greek Vases'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 2001) 128-30.〕 On two amphorae, Berlin 1720 and Vatican 344, both terms are used in the iambic trimeter inscription, ''Exēkías égrapse kapoíēsé me'' ("Exekias made ''and'' painted me"), indicating that in these cases Exekias was responsible for both the potting of the vase and its painted decoration.〔Beazley, ''The Development of Attic Black Figure,'' 59-60.〕 Fragments of a third amphora (Taranto 179196) also show the use of both terms, when the inscriptions are restored.〔Mackay, ''Tradition and Originality: A Study of Exekias,'' 135-136.〕 This leads to speculation regarding the meaning of the ''epoíēsen'' signatures and why, in some instances, Exekias signed only as potter on vases that he clearly painted as well. It has been suggested that he chose to sign as painter only the works he was particularly proud of. According to a different approach, Exekias' ''epoíēsen'' signatures could be understood as functioning as a general workshop stamp, which would mean that Exekias may have simply been the master-potter who supervised the production of the vessel.〔R.M. Cook, “‘Epoiesen on Greek Vases,” ''Journal of Hellenic Studies'' 91 (1971): 137-38.〕 Seven of the vessels signed "''Exēkias epoíēsen,''" however, carry too little decoration to afford comparison. Only two of the remaining vases signed with ''epoíēsen'' can be attributed to the same hand as those signed "''... égrapse kapoíēsé me''"—that is, to the painter Exekias. Beazley attributed one of the vases with the potter-only signature to the so-called Group E, to which Exekias is closely related''.〔Beazley, ''Athenian Black-Figure Vase-Painters,'' 136, no. 49; 143.〕
While Exekias' work itself offers a glimpse of the culture of ancient pottery, the find spots of his vases also reveal information about the market in which Exekias positioned himself. Fragments of column krater and a hydria attributed to Exekias were excavated on the Athenian Acropolis, suggesting that Exekias maintained a clientele in his home city. The fact that two of his vases were found on the Acropolis, an important religious sanctuary, underscores his prestige as a vase painter.〔Oscar Broneer, “A Calyx-Krater by Exekias,” ''Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens'' 6 (1937): 469-86; Mary B. Moore, “Athena and Herakles on Exekias’ Calyx-Krater,” ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 90 (1986): 35-39; Mackay, ''Tradition and Originality: A Study of Exekias'', 47, 309.〕 Exekias not only enjoyed a thriving market in Athens; many of his extant vases were also exported to Etruria, Italy, found at sites such as Vulci and Orvieto, where they were buried in Etruscan tombs.〔Beth Cohen, “The Literate Potter: A Tradition of Incised Signatures on Attic Vases,” ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Journal'' 26 (1991): 57.〕 Being admirers of Greeks and their arts and letters, the Etruscans developed a taste for Greek vases, over 30,000 of which have been found in the region.〔Robin Osborne, “Why did Athenian Pots Appeal to the Etruscans?” World Archaeology 33 (2001): 277.〕 The presence of Exekias' work in Etruria indicates that foreigners also admired his vases, and that he catered to markets both at home and abroad.〔Beazley Archives, accessed http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/xdb/ASP/browse.asp?PageSearch=true〕
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