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''Hudud'' (Arabic: ''Ḥudūd'', also transliterated ''hadud'', ''hudood''; singular hadd, , literal meaning "limit", or "restriction") is an Islamic concept: punishments which under Islamic law (Shariah) are mandated and fixed by God. The Shariah divided offenses into those again God and those against man. Crimes against God violated His Hudud, or 'boundaries'. These punishments were specified by the Quran, and in some instances by the ''Sunnah''.〔〔〔 They are namely for adultery, fornication, accusing someone of illicit sex but failing to present four male Muslim eyewitnesses,〔〔Kecia Ali (2006), Sexual Ethics and Islam, ISBN 978-1851684564, Chapter 4.〕 apostasy, consuming intoxicants, outrage (e.g rebellion against the lawful Caliph, other forms of mischief against the Muslim state, or highway robbery), robbery and theft.〔Mohamed S. El-Awa (1993), Punishment In Islamic Law, American Trust Publications, ISBN 978-0892591428, pp. 1-68〕〔Philip Reichel and Jay Albanese (2013), Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice, SAGE publications, ISBN 978-1452240350, pp. 36-37〕 These punishments range from public lashing to publicly stoning to death, amputation of hands and crucifixion.〔(Hadd ) Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press (2012)〕 However, in most Muslim nations in modern times public stoning and execution are relatively uncommon, although they are found in Muslim nations that follow a strict interpretation of ''sharia'', such as Saudi Arabia and Iran.〔Oliver Leaman (2013), Controversies in Contemporary Islam, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415676137, Ch. 9〕〔John L. Esposito (2004), The Islamic World: Past and Present, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0397512164, pp. 82-83〕 The crimes against hudud cannot be pardoned by the victim or by the state, and the punishments must be carried out in public. However, the evidentiary standards for these punishment were often impossibly high. Moreover, Muhammad ordered Muslim judges to 'ward off the ''Hudud'' by ambiguities.' The severe Hudud punishments were meant to convey the gravity of those offenses against God and to deter, not to be carried out. If a thief refused to confess, or if a confessed adulterer retracted his confession, the Hudud punishments would be waived.〔 ''Hudud'' is not the only form of punishment under ''sharia''. There are two others: ''Qisas'', certain occasions of retaliation as a punishment in a private dispute between two parties, and ''Tazir'', a punishment left to an Islamic judge's discretion in some circumstances.〔〔Muhammad Al-Madni Busaq, Perspectives on modern criminal policy & Islamic Sharia, Naif Arab University, ISBN 978-9960853178, pp. 126-135〕 ==Scriptural basis== ''Hudud'' crimes are defined in the ''Quran'' and the ''Sunnah''. These are considered to declare that a sovereign Muslim state has the obligation and responsibility to punish ''hudud'' crimes as "claims of God", but that all other offences are "claims of () servants" where responsibility for prosecution rests on the victim. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Hudud」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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