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Human rights are moral principles or norms,〔James Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, December 13, 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (Human Rights ), Retrieved August 14, 2014〕 that describe certain standards of human behavior, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable〔 fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being,"〔()〕 and which are "inherent in all human beings"〔Burns H. Weston, March 20, 2014, Encyclopedia Britannica, (human rights ), Retrieved August 14, 2014〕 regardless of their nation, location, language, religion, ethnic origin or any other status.〔 They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal,〔 and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone.〔The United Nations, Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights, (What are human rights? ), Retrieved August 14, 2014〕 They require empathy and the rule of law〔Gary J. Bass (book reviewer), Samuel Moyn (author of book being reviewed), October 20, 2010, The New Republic, (The Old New Thing ), Retrieved August 14, 2014〕 and impose an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others.〔〔 They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances;〔 for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture, and execution.〔Merriam-Webster dictionary, (), Retrieved August 14, 2014, "rights (as freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture, and execution) regarded as belonging fundamentally to all persons"〕 The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law, global and regional institutions.〔 Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide. The idea of human rights suggests that "if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights." The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. The precise meaning of the term ''right'' is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical debate; while there is consensus that human rights encompasses a wide variety of rights〔 such as the right to a fair trial, protection against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech,〔Macmillan Dictionary, (human rights - definition ), Retrieved August 14, 2014, "the rights that everyone should have in a society, including the right to express opinions about the government or to have protection from harm"〕 or a right to education, there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework of human rights;〔 some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard.〔 Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the atrocities of The Holocaust,〔 culminating in the adoption of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson, and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and which featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution.〔 From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the twentieth century, possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide, and war crimes,〔 as a realization of inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society.〔 ==History of the concept== (詳細はConstitution of Medina (622), Al-Risalah al-Huquq (659-713), Magna Carta (1215), the English Bill of Rights (1689), the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), and the Bill of Rights in the United States Constitution (1791).〔 The modern sense of human rights can be traced to Renaissance Europe and the Protestant Reformation, alongside the disappearance of the feudal authoritarianism and religious conservativism that dominated the Middle Ages. One theory is that human rights were developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, and that while earlier cultures had important ethical concepts, they generally lacked a concept of human rights. For example, McIntyre argues there is no word for "right" in any language before 1400.〔 Medieval charters of liberty such as the English Magna Carta were not charters of human rights, rather they were the foundation〔Danny Danziger & John Gillingham, "1215: The Year of Magna Carta"(2004 paperback edition) p278〕 and constituted a form of limited political and legal agreement to address specific political circumstances, in the case of Magna Carta later being recognised in the course of early modern debates about rights. One of the oldest records of human rights is the statute of Kalisz (1264), giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination and hate speech.〔Isaac Lewin, The Jewish community in Poland, Philosophical Library, the University of Michigan, 1985 p.19〕 Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of human rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship, which did not emerge until the past few hundred years.〔Samuel Moyn, August 30-edition of September 6, 2010, The Nation, (Human Rights in History: Human rights emerged not in the 1940s but the 1970s, and on the ruins of prior dreams ), Retrieved August 14, 2014〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Human rights」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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