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Instrumentalism is one of a multitude of modern schools of thought created by scientists and philosophers throughout the 20th century. Its premises and practices were most clearly and persuasively stated by two philosophers—John Dewey (1859-1952) and Karl Popper (1902-1994). Independently, they defined the school quite similarly, but their judgments of it were irreconcilable. Dewey was a practitioner of instrumentalism who, while fearing that the name was easily misunderstood, adopted it for his modernization of tools of induction and his denial of reality behind experience. Popper was a critic who judged its insistence on induction and its denial of reality behind experience to be hopelessly flawed. These contrary judgments endowed the school with the legacy of confusion and ambiguity described below. This article reports the definition of instrumentalism accepted by these two philosophers. It explains the grounds of their irreconcilable judgments, now embedded in popular understanding of the school. And it describes the practice of followers of each philosopher, demonstrating that neither philosopher's judgments have achieved universal assent, leaving the school's meaning and legitimacy in modern scientific inquiry indeterminate. ==Instrumentalism defined== In 1925, John Dewey published an article entitled "The Development of American Pragmatism," in which he defined instrumentalism to distinguish it from schools known as "pragmatism" and "experimentalism." In 1956, Karl Popper published an article entitled "Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge," in which he defined instrumentalism to distinguish it from "essentialism" and a "third view"—his own-which he came to call "critical rationalism." Dewey's article was republished in 1984 in ''John Dewey: The Later Works.'' Popper's article was republished in 1962 in ''Conjectures and Refutations.'' The following four premises defining instrumentalism are taken from these sources. Premises 1 and 2 were accepted by both philosophers and the general public. Premises 3 and 4 were and remain controversial, and will be analyzed in the next section. 1) Theories are instruments, tools-of-the-trade of thinking. :Dewey: :Popper: 2) Theories are tested by consequences, applying the instrumental criterion of judgment. :Dewey: :Popper: 3) Theory-development requires inductive reasoning, basing general statements on limited observations. :Dewey: :Popper: 4) There are no realities beyond what can be known using instrumental theories. :Dewey: :Popper: Instrumentalism is often identified with other schools which share some of these premises: positivism, pragmatism, operationalism, behaviorism, anti-realism, empiricism, consequentialism. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Instrumentalism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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