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Istishhad ((アラビア語:استشهاد)) is the Arabic word for "martyrdom", "death of a martyr", or "heroic death".〔Hans Wehr, ''Arabic-English dictionary: The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic'', 4th edition, ed. J Milton Cowan, Urbana, IL: Spoken Language Services, Inc., 1994, p. 572〕 In recent years the term has been said to "emphasize... heroism in the act of sacrifice" rather than "victimization", and has "developed...into a military and political strategy", often called "martyrdom operations".〔Neil L. Whitehead and Nasser Abufarha, ("Suicide, violence, and cultural conceptions of martyrdom in Palestine" ), ''Social Research'', Summer 2008〕 One who martyrs themselves is given the honorific ''shahid''. A search of the Chicago Project on Security and Terrorism, "Suicide Attack Database" of suicide attacks in 22 conflicts involving Islamic groups fighting a government or military from the time period spanning from 1982 though most of 2015 (September 30, 2015), found over 4400 suicide attacks resulting in over 43,000 killed and 110,000 injured.〔(Connect to the Suicide Attack Database )〕 ==History== In the Philippines the Moro Muslims are reported to have engaged in suicide attacks against enemies as early as 16th century. Those who performed suicide attacks were called ''mag-sabil'', and the suicide attacks were known as ''Parang-sabil''. The Spanish called them ''juramentado''. The idea of the juramentado was considered part of jihad in the Moros' Islamic religion. During an attack, a Juramentado would throw himself at his targets and kill them with bladed weapons such as barongs and kris until he himself was killed. The Moros performed juramentado suicide attacks against the Spanish in the Spanish–Moro conflict of the 16th to the 19th centuries, against the Americans in the Moro Rebellion (1899–1913), and against the Japanese in World War II. The Moro Juramentados aimed their attacks specifically against their enemies, and not against non-Muslims in general. They launched suicide attacks on the Japanese, Spanish, Americans and Filipinos, but did not attack the non-Muslim Chinese as the Chinese were not considered enemies of the Moro people. The Japanese responded to these suicide attacks by massacring all the relatives of the attacker. The origins of modern Istishhadi attacks lie among the Shia in Iran during the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988. Mohammed Hossein Fahmideh, a 13-year-old boy who fought in the war, is said to be the first Muslim to have participated in such an attack in contemporary history. He strapped rocket-propelled grenades to his chest and blew himself up under an Iraqi tank in November 1980. Ayatollah Khomeini declared Fahmideh a national hero and inspiration for further volunteers for martyrdom.〔(Our leader: Mohammed Hossein Fahmideh )〕 Other Iranian basij volunteers ran through minefields to detonate buried landmines and clear a safe battlefield path for following soldiers. Shia usually refer to the martyrdom of Hussain ibn Ali and his companions and family members in the Battle of Karbala as role models and inspiration for martyrdom as a glorious and noble death. When the Palestinian Islamist group Hamas first carried out suicide attacks – involved strapping the body of the mission carrier with explosives – in the Israeli-inhabited towns of Afula and Khidara in the spring of 1994, it "described these operations as ''`amaliyat istishhadiya'' (martyrdom operations)" rather than the more secular ''a'maliyat fida'iyah'' (self-sacrifice operations). The term 'amaliyat istishhadiya has caught on and "today, istishhad is the most frequently used term to refer to acts of sacrifice in the Palestinian resistance and is used by Islamic, secular, and Marxist groups alike".〔 According to one scholar, Noah Feldman: "The vocabulary of martyrdom and sacrifice, the formal videotaped preconfession of faith, the technological tinkering to increase deadliness—all are now instantly recognizable to every Muslim." Feldman sees a worrying trend in the steady expansion of the targets of Istishhad since its debut in 1983 when successful bombing of barracks and embassy buildings drove the U.S. military out of Lebanon. First the targets were American soldiers, then mostly Israelis, including women and children. From Lebanon and Israel, the technique of suicide bombing moved to Iraq, where the targets have included mosques and shrines, and the intended victims have mostly been Shiite Iraqis. The newest testing ground is Afghanistan, where both the perpetrators and the targets are orthodox Sunni Muslims. Not long ago, a bombing in Lashkar Gah, the capital of Helmand Province, killed Muslims, including women, who were applying to go on pilgrimage to Mecca. Overall, the trend is definitively in the direction of Muslim-on-Muslim violence. By a conservative accounting, more than three times as many Iraqis have been killed by suicide bombings in the last 3 years as have Israelis in the last 10. Suicide bombing has become the archetype of Muslim violence—not just to frightened Westerners but also to Muslims themselves.〔Noah Feldman, ("Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age" ), ''New York Times'', October 29, 2006〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Istishhad」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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