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Left-libertarianism (or left-wing libertarianism) names several related but distinct approaches to political and social theory, which stress both individual freedom and social equality. In its oldest usage, ''left-libertarianism'' is a synonym for anti-authoritarian varieties of left-wing politics, either anarchism in general or social anarchism in particular.〔〔Bookchin, Murray and Biehl, Janet (1997). ''The Murray Bookchin Reader''. Cassell: p. 170. ISBN 0-304-33873-7〕 It later became associated with free-market libertarians when Murray Rothbard and Karl Hess reached out to the New Left in the 1960s.〔Carson, Kevin (15 June 2014). ("What is Left-Libertarianism?" ). Center for a Stateless Society.〕 This left-wing market anarchism, which includes Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's mutualism and Samuel Edward Konkin III's agorism, appeals to left-wing concerns such as egalitarianism, gender and sexuality, class, immigration, and environmentalism.〔 Most recently, ''left-libertarianism'' refers to mostly non-anarchist political positions associated with Hillel Steiner, Philippe Van Parijs, and Peter Vallentyne that combine self-ownership with an egalitarian approach to natural resources.〔Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Honderich, Ted. ''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy''. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0199264797. "'Left-libertarianism' is a new term for an old conception of justice, dating back to Grotius. It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self-ownership over his person with the egalitarian premiss that natural resources should be shared equally. Right-wing libertarians argue that the right of self-ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world, such as unequal amounts of land. According to left-libertarians, however, the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property. Historic proponents of this view include Thomas Paine, Herbert Spencer, and Henry George. Recent exponents include Philippe Van Parijs and Hillel Steiner."〕 Some left-libertarians state that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights,〔Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. ''The social history of crime and punishment in America''. London: Sage Publications. p. 1007. ISBN 1412988764. "() disagree with right-libertarians with respect to property rights, arguing instead that individuals have no inherent right to natural resources. Namely, these resources must be treated as collective property that is made available on an egalitarian basis."〕〔Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). "Left Libertarianism". In Hamowy, Ronald. ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism''. p. 288. "(libertarians ) regard each of us as full self-owners. However, they differ from what we generally understand by the term ''libertarian'' in denying the right to private property. We own ourselves, but we do not own nature, at least not as individuals. Left libertarians embrace the view that all natural resources, land, oil, gold, trees, and so on should be held collectively. To the extent that individuals make use of these commonly owned goods, they must do so only with the permission of society, a permission granted only under the proviso that a certain payment for their use be made to society at large."〕 and maintains that natural resources (land, oil, gold, trees) ought to be held in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively. Those left-libertarians who support private property do so under the condition that recompense is offered to the local community.〔 == Anarchism == (詳細はEnlightenment, particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.〔(2006). "Anarchism". ''Encarta Online Encyclopedia''.〕 As part of the political turmoil of the 1790s, in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought.〔Everhart, Robert B. (1982). ''The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society''. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research. p. 115.〕〔 According to anarchist Peter Kropotkin, Godwin was "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work";〔Peter Kropotkin, ("Anarchism" ), ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1910.〕 Godwin instead attached his ideas to an early Edmund Burke.〔Godwin, William (1793). ''Political Justice''. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in () Burke's ''Vindication of Natural Society''; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence".〕 Godwin is generally regarded as the founder of philosophical anarchism. He argued in ''Political Justice'' that government has an inherently malevolent influence on society, and that it perpetuates dependency and ignorance.〔〔Adams, Ian (2001). ''Political Ideology Today''. Manchester University Press. p. 116.〕 He thought the proliferation of reason would eventually cause government to wither away as an unnecessary force. Although he did not accord the state with moral legitimacy, he was against the use of revolutionary tactics for removing the government from power. Rather, he advocated for its replacement through a process of peaceful evolution. His aversion to the imposition of a rules-based society led him to denounce, as a manifestation of the people's "mental enslavement," the foundations of law, property rights and even the institution of marriage. He considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organization. In each case, government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of our capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgment. In France, revolutionaries began using the term ''anarchiste'' in a positive light as early as September 1793.〔Sheehan, Sean (2004). ''Anarchism''. London: Reaktion Books Ltd. p. 85.〕 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was the first self-proclaimed anarchist, a label he adopted in his treatise ''What is Property?,'' and is often described as the founder of modern anarchist theory.〔Guérin, Daniel (1970). ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''. New York: Monthly Review Press.〕 He developed the theory of spontaneous order in society, in which organisation emerges without a central coordinator imposing its own idea of order against the wills of individuals acting in their own interests—"Liberty is the mother, not the daughter, of order." Proudhon answers his own question in ''What is Property?'' with the famous statement, "Property is theft." He opposed the institution of decreed property ("proprietorship") in which owners have complete rights to "use and abuse" their property as they wish,〔Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph (1840). "(Chapter 3. Labour as the efficient cause of the domain of property )". In ''What is Property?''.〕 and contrasted this with usufruct ("possession"), or limited ownership of resources only while in more or less continuous use. Later, Proudhon added that "Property is Liberty," and argued that it was a bulwark against state power.〔Edwards, Stewart (1969). "Introduction". In ''Selected Writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon''. Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company, Inc. p. 33.〕 His opposition to the state, organized religion, and certain capitalist practices inspired subsequent anarchists, and made him one of the leading social thinkers of his time. In a scathing letter written in 1857, French anarchist Joseph Déjacque castigated Proudhon for his sexist economic and political views.〔Marshall (2009). p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal ''Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social'' published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sébastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists."〕 He argued that "it is not the product of his or her labour that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature."〔(21 September 1858). "l'Echange". In ''Le Libertaire''. 6. New York. ()〕 Déjacque later named his anarchist publication ''The Libertarian: Journal of the Social Movement'', which was printed from 9 June 1858 to 4 February 1861. In the mid-1890s, Sébastien Faure began publishing a new ''Le Libertaire'' while France's Third Republic enacted the "villainous laws" (''lois scélérates''), which banned anarchist publications in France; ''libertarianism'' has frequently been used as a synonym for ''anarchism'' since this time, especially in continental Europe.〔Colin Ward (2004), (''Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction'' ), Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal ''Le Libertaire'' was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."〕 In the 1950s, classical liberals in the United States began identifying as libertarians in order to distance themselves from the social liberals of the New Left.〔Burns, Jennifer (2009). ''Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right.'' New York: Oxford University Press. p. 309. ISBN 978-0-19-532487-7. "Although it did not become widely used until the 1950s, 'libertarian' was in circulation prior to the New Deal. It emerged after Roosevelt popularized a new understanding of 'liberal,' the term formerly used by advocates of limited government."〕 Since this time, it has become useful to distinguish this modern American libertarianism, which promotes laissez-faire capitalism and, generally, a night-watchman state, from traditional, left-wing anarchism.〔Goodway, David (2006). ''Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-libertarian thought and British writers from William Morris to Colin Ward''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. (p. 4 ). ISBN 1846310253, 9781846310256. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore no become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition."〕〔Newman, Saul (2010). ''The Politics of Postanarchism, Edinburgh University Press''. (p. 43 ). ISBN 0748634959, 9780748634958. "It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism). There is a complex debate within this tradition between those like Robert Nozick, who advocate a 'minimal state', and those like Rothbard who want to do away with the state altogether and allow all transactions to be governed by the market alone. From an anarchist perspective, however, both positions--the minimal state (minarchist) and the no-state ('anarchist') positions--neglect the problem of economic domination; in other words, they neglect the hierarchies, oppressions, and forms of exploitation that would inevitably arise in a laissez-faire 'free' market. ... Anarchism, therefore, has no truck with this right-wing libertarianism, not only because it neglects economic inequality and domination, but also because in practice (and theory) it is highly inconsistent and contradictory. The individual freedom invoked by right-wing libertarians is only a narrow economic freedom within the constraints of a capitalist market, which, as anarchists show, is no freedom at all."〕 Accordingly, the former is often described as right-wing libertarianism or simply right-libertarianism, while synonyms for the latter include ''left-libertarianism'',〔"Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). ''The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy''. p. 227. "The term 'left-libertanism' has at least three meanings. In its oldest sense, it is a synonym either for anarchism in general or social anarchism in particular. Later it became a term for the left or Konkinite wing of the free-market libertarian movement, and has since come to cover a range of pro-market but anti-capitalist positions, mostly individualist anarchist, including agorism and mutualism, often with an implication of sympathies (such as for radical feminism or the labor movement) not usually shared by anarcho-capitalists. In a third sense it has recently come to be applied to a position combining individual self-ownership with an egalitarian approach to natural resources; most proponents of this position are not anarchists."〕 ''libertarian socialism'',〔Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.〕 ''socialist anarchism'',〔 and ''left-anarchism''.〔Brooks, Thom. (2002) Book Reviews. ''Journal of Applied Philosophy'' 19 (1) , 75–90 〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Left-libertarianism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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