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Paleoparasitology
Paleoparasitology (or "palaeoparasitology") is the study of parasites from the past, and their interactions with hosts and vectors; it is a subfield of Paleontology, the study of living organisms from the past. Some authors define this term more narrowly, as "Paleoparasitology is the study of parasites in archaeological material." (p. 103)〔Gonçalves, M.L.C., A. Araújo, and L.F. Ferreira (2003) Human intestinal parasites in the past: New findings and a review. ''Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz'' 98(Suppl 1):103-118.〕 K.J. Reinhard suggests that the term "archaeoparasitology" be applied to "... all parasitological remains excavated from archaeological contexts ... derived from human activity" and that "the term 'paleoparasitology' be applied to studies of nonhuman, paleontological material." (p. 233)〔Reinhard, K.J. (1992) Parasitology as an interpretive tool in archaeology. ''American Antiquity'' 57(2):231-245.〕 This article follows Reinhard's suggestion and discusses the protozoan and animal parasites of non-human animals and plants from the past, while those from humans and our hominid ancestors are covered in archaeoparasitology.
==Sources of material==
The primary sources of paleoparasitological material include mummified tissues,〔 〕〔Dittmar de la Cruz, K., R. Ribbeck, and A. Daugschies (2003) Paläoparasitologische Analyse von Meerschweinchenmumien der Chiribaya-Kultur (900-1100 AD). ''Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift'' 116(1-2):45-49.〕 coprolites (fossilised dung) from mammals〔Schmidt, G.D., D.W. Duszynski, and P.S. Martin (1992) Parasites of the extinct Shasta ground sloth, ''Nothrotheriops shastensis'', in Rampart Cave, Arizona. ''Journal of Parasitology'' 78(5):811-816.〕 or dinosaurs,〔Poinar, G., Jr. and A.J. Boucot (2006) (Evidence of intestinal parasites in dinosaurs ). ''Parasitology'' 133(2):245-249.〕 fossils,〔Conway Morris, S. (1981) Parasites and the fossil record. ''Parasitology'' 82(3):489-509.〕 and amber inclusions.〔Poinar, G.O., Jr. and R. Poinar (1999) ''The Amber Forest: A Reconstruction of a Vanished World.'' Princeton University Press, xviii, 239 pp.〕 Hair,〔Penalver, E. and D. Grimaldi (2005) (Assemblages of mammalian hair and blood-feeding midges (Insecta: Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) in Miocene amber ). ''Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences'' 96:177-195.〕 skins,〔Mey E. (2005) (''Psittacobrosus bechsteini'': A new extinct chewing louse (Insecta, Phthiraptera, Amblycera) off the Cuban macaw ''Ara tricolor'' (Psittaciiformes), with an annotated review of fossil and recently extinct animal lice ). ''Anzeiger des Vereins Thueringer Ornithologen'' 5(2):201-217.〕 and feathers〔Martill, D.M. and P.G. Davis (2001) A feather with possible ectoparasite eggs from the Crato Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Aptian) of Brazil. ''Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Palaeontologie Abhandlungen'' 219(3):241-259.〕 also yield ectoparasite remains. Some archaeological artifacts document the presence of animal parasites. One example is the depiction of what appear to be mites in the ear of a "hyaena-like" animal in a tomb painting from ancient Thebes.〔Arthur, D.R. (1965) (Ticks in Egypt in 1500 B.C.? ) ''Nature'' 206(4988):1060-1061.〕
Some parasites leave marks or traces (ichnofossils) on host remains, which persist in the fossil record in the absence of structural remains of the parasite. Parasitic ichnofossils include plant remains which exhibit characteristic signs of parasitic insect infestation, such as galls or leaf mines〔Scott, A.C., J. Stephenson, and M.E. Collinson (1994) (The fossil record of leaves with galls ). In: M.A.J. Williams (ed) ''Plant Gall - Organisms, Interactions, and Populations''. Systematics Association Special Volume Series, Vol. 49. Clarendon Press: Oxford, pp. 447-470.〕〔Woodcock, D.W. and S. Maekawa (2006) Fossil leaf galls preserved in Honolulu volcanic series rocks. ''Bishop Museum Occasional Papers'' 88:20-22.〕〔Erwin, D.M. and K.N. Schick (2007) (New Miocene oak galls (Cynipini) and their bearing on the history of cynipid wasps in western North America ). ''Journal of Paleontology'' 81(3):568-580.〕〔Stone, G.N., R.W.J.M. van der Ham, and J.G. Brewer (2008) (Fossil oak galls preserve ancient multitrophic interactions ). ''Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B. Biological Sciences'' 275(1648):2213-2219.〕 and certain anomalies seen in invertebrate endoskeletal remains.〔Ruiz, G.M. and D.R. Lindberg (1989) A fossil record for trematodes: Extent and potential uses. ''Lethaia'' 22:431-438.〕〔Radwanska, U. and A. Radwanski (2005) (Myzostomid and copepod infestation of Jurassic echinoderms: A general approach, some new occurrences, and/or re-interpretation of previous reports ). ''Acta Geologica Polonica'' 55(2):109-130.〕
Plant and animal parasites have been found in samples from a broad spectrum of geological periods, including the Holocene (samples over 10,000 years old),〔Larew, H.G. (1987) Two cynipid wasp acorn galls preserved in the La Brea Tar Pits (early Holocene). ''Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington'' 89(4):831-833.〕 Pleistocene (over 550,000 years old),〔Jouy-Avantin, F., C. Combes, H. Lumley, J.-C. Miskovsky, and H. Moné (1999) Helminth eggs in animal coprolites from a Middle Pleistocene site in Europe. ''Journal of Parasitology'' 85(2):376-379〕 Eocene (over 44 million years old),〔Wappler, T., V.S. Smith, and R.C. Dalgleish (2004) Scratching an ancient itch: An Eocene bird louse fossil. ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B. Biological Sciences'' 271(Suppl 5):s255-s258.〕 Cretaceous (over 100 million years)〔Poinar, G., Jr. and S.R. Telford, Jr. (2005) Paleohaemoproteus burmacis gen.n., sp.n. (Haemosporidia: Plasmodidae) from an Early Cretaceous biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Parasitology 131(1):79-84.〕 and even Lower Cambrian (over 500 million years).〔Bassett, M.G., L.E. Popov and L.E. Holmer (2004) (The oldest-known metazoan parasite? ) ''Journal of Paleontology'' 78(6):1214-1216.〕
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