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Self-handicapping is a cognitive strategy by which people avoid effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem.〔Kolditz, T. A., & Arkin, R. M. (1982). An impression management interpretation of the self-handicapping strategy. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43'', 492-502.〕 It was first theorized by Edward E. Jones and Steven Berglas,〔Jones, E. E., & Berglas, S. (1978). Control of attributions about the self through self-handicapping strategies: The appeal of alcohol and the role of underachievement. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4'', 200-206.〕 according to whom self-handicaps are obstacles created, or claimed, by the individual in anticipation of failing performance.〔Feick, D.L., & Rhodewalt, F. (1997). The Double-Edged Sword of Self-Handicapping: Discounting, Augmentation, and the Protection and Enhancement of Self-Esteem. ''Motivation and Emotion, Vol. 21, No. 2. ''〕 Self-handicapping can be seen as a method of preserving self-esteem but it can also be used for self-enhancement and to manage the impressions of others.〔Rhodewalt, F., & Vohs, K. D. (2005). Defensive strategies, motivation, and the self. In A. Elliot & C. Dweck (Eds.). ''Handbook of competence and motivation''(pp. 548-565). New York: Guilford Press.〕 This conservation or augmentation of self-esteem is due to changes in causal attributions or the attributions for success and failure that self-handicapping affords. There are two methods that people use to self-handicap: behavioral and claimed self-handicaps. People withdraw effort or create obstacles to successes so they can maintain public and private self-images of competence. Self-handicapping is a widespread behavior amongst humans that has been observed in a variety of cultures and geographic areas. For instance, students frequently participate in self-handicapping behavior to avoid feeling bad about themselves if they do not perform well in class. Self-handicapping behavior has also been observed in the business world. The effects of self-handicapping can be both large and small and found in virtually any environment wherein people are expected to perform. ==Overview and relevance== The first method people use to self-handicap is when they make a task harder for themselves in fear of not successfully completing that task, so that if they do in fact fail, they can simply place the blame on the obstacles rather than placing the blame on themselves. This is known to researchers as ''behavioral'' handicapping, in which the individual actually creates obstacles to performance.〔Leary, M. R., & Shepperd, J. A. (1986). Behavioral self-handicaps versus self-reported handicaps: A conceptual note. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51'', 1265–1268.〕 Examples of behavioral handicaps include alcohol consumption,〔Bordini, E.J., Tucker, J.A., Vuchinich, R.E., & Rudd, E.J. (1986). Alcohol consumption as a self-handicapping strategy in women. ''Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95'', 346–349.〕 the selection of unattainable goals,〔Greenberg, J. (1985). Unattainable goal choice as a self-handicapping strategy. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15'', 140–152.〕 and refusal to practice a task or technique (especially in sports and the fine arts).〔Harris, R.N., & Snyder, C.R. (1986). The role of uncertain self-esteem in self-handicapping. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51'', 451–458. 〕 The second way that people self-handicap is by coming up with justifications for their potential failures, so that if they do not succeed in the task, they can point to their excuses as the reasons for their failures. This is known as ''claimed'' self-handicapping, in which the individual merely states that an obstacle to performance exists. Examples of claimed self-handicaps include declarations that one is very anxious 〔Smith, T.W., Snyder, C.R., & Handelsman, M.M. (1982). On the self-serving function of an academic wooden leg: Test Anxiety as a self-handicapping strategy. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, '' 314–321.〕 or that one is experiencing various physical and psychological symptoms.〔〔Smith, T.W., Snyder, C.R., & Perkins, S.C. (1983). The self-serving function of hypochondriacal complaints: Physical symptoms as self-handicapping strategies. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44'', 787–797.〕 Self-handicapping is a topic of importance because it helps to explain and predict individuals' negative, self-destructive behaviors. By studying what self-handicapping is and why people do it, social psychologists can work to help people solve their problems in a less destructive manner. Social psychology can impact the strategy of self-handicapping because it can work to reduce it by understanding how and why people adopt these self-defeating measures. Once self-handicapping becomes recognizable to the public, the behaviors may decrease. Social psychologists look at how people self-handicap by evaluating external factors. Personality psychologists look at why people self-handicap by evaluating internal factors. Self-handicapping behaviour allows individuals to externalize failures but internalize success, accepting credit for achievements but allowing excuses for failings. An example of self-handicapping is the student who spends the night before an important exam partying rather than studying. The student fears failing his exam and appearing incapable. In partying the night before the exam the student has engaged in self-defeating behaviour and increased the likelihood of poor exam performance. However, in the event of failure, the student can offer fatigue and a hangover, rather than lack of ability, as plausible explanations. Furthermore, should the student receive positive feedback about his exam, his achievement is enhanced by the fact that he succeeded, despite the handicap. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Self-handicapping」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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