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Ispahsalar
''Ispahsālār'' ((ペルシア語:اسپهسالار)) or ''sipahsālār'' (; "army commander"), in Arabic rendered as ''isfahsalār'' () or ''iṣbahsalār'' (), was a title used in much of the Islamic world during the 10th–15th centuries, to denote the senior-most military commanders but also as a generic general officer rank.
== Islamic East and Persia ==
The title derives from Middle Persian ''spāh-sālār'' (),〔"Kursi-i hazrat Zartosht", (''Nirangs'' ).〕 already attested in Pazend texts of the 9th century. It was the equivalent of the old Sasanian title of ''Spahbed'' (Arabic ''ispahbadh''), which during the Islamic era fell out of general use and became a regnal title among certain local dynasties in Tabaristan and Khurasan. The titles of ''Ispahsalar'' and ''Sipahsalar'' came into prominence in the Islamic world in the later 10th century, with the rise to power of Iranian dynasties during the so-called "Iranian Intermezzo". In its sense of "commander-in-chief", the title was used in parallel to the usual Arabic titles ''Ḥājib al-Ḥujjāb'' (), ''Ḥājib al-Kabīr'' () or ''Ṣāhib al-Jaysh'' ().
Among the Buyids, it was given as a sign of conciliation as well as of particular honour to two rebellious Turkish generals, Sebüktigin al-Mu'izzi in 971, and, after his death, Alptakin in 974/5. With the growing instability of the Buyid states towards the end of the century, the usage of ''Ispahsalar'' became debased, and it came to mean simply "commander" or just "officer". Among the later Saffarid dynasty under Khalaf ibn Ahmad (reigned 963–1002), the title was applied to the commander-in-chief of the army, while the ''Hajib al-Hujjab'' was a separate office, possibly commanding the slave troops (''mamalik'', ''ghilman''). Among the Turkic dynasties, the Arabic and Persian titles were supplemented by the Turkish title ''Sübashi''. The Ghaznavids employed ''Sipahsalar'' and its Arabic equivalents in its original sense of "commander-in-chief", but also for commanders of specific contingents of their army, alongside the use of "plain" ''salar'' (and in Arabic, ''hajib'') for less exalted generals. The Seljuq Empire and the Sultanate of Rum used a number of variants of the title, such as ''Ispahsālār-i Buzurg'' () or ''Amīr-i Ispahsālār'' (), as well as a variety of other Arabic, Persian and Turkish titles both in a technical sense for the commander-in-chief of the army as well as the governors and army commanders of important regions, as well as in a more general sense of "general officer". The title was also used by the Khwarizmshahs, originally Seljuq vassals, who employed a unique variant, ''Qīr Isfahsālār'' (), for commanders of frontier regions.
The Mongol conquests diminished the use of the title, bringing to the fore Turkish and Mongol ones instead, but it remained in widespread use in the isolated and conservative regions of Gilan and Daylam on the Caspian shore. In Persia proper, it was revived by the Safavids under Shah Abbas I (r. 1587–1629), replacing the Arabic title ''Amir al-Umara'' used until then. The office was apparently usually held by the ''Beglerbegi'' of Azerbaijan, with Rustam Khan the most prominent person to occupy it. The post was abolished again in 1664/77, after which a commander-in-chief (''Sardar'') was appointed only in wartime. The title re-appeared in the form ''Sipahsālār-i A'zam'' () under the late Qajar dynasty, being held as an honorific by Minister of War Mirza Muhammad Khan Qajar in 1858, the reformist Minister of War (and soon after chief minister) Mirza Husayn Khan Qazwini—who also built the namesake Sipahsalar Mosque in Tehran—in 1871, and by chief minister Mohammad Vali Khan Tonekaboni in 1910.
抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
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