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Socialism is a social and economic system characterised by social ownership and democratic control of the means of production,〔"What else does a socialist economic system involve? Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system" N. Scott Arnold. ''The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism : A Critical Study''. Oxford University Press. 1998. pg. 8〕 as well as a political theory and movement that aims at the establishment of such a system.〔"2. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) any of various social or political theories or movements in which the common welfare is to be achieved through the establishment of a socialist economic system" ("Socialism" at The Free dictionary )〕 "Social ownership" may refer to public ownership, cooperative ownership, citizen ownership of equity, or any combination of these. Although there are many varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them,〔Peter Lamb, J. C. Docherty. ''Historical dictionary of socialism''. Lanham, Maryland, UK; Oxford, England, UK: Scarecrow Press, Inc, 2006. p. 1.〕 social ownership is the common element shared by its various forms.〔 Socialism can be divided into both non-market and market forms. Non-market socialism involves the substitution of factor markets, money and financial decisions for managing the economy with engineering and technical criteria centered around calculation performed in-kind, producing an economic mechanism that functions according to different economic laws than capitalism does and circumvents the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system.〔''Is Socialism Dead? A Comment on Market Socialism and Basic Income Capitalism'', by Arneson, Richard J. 1992. Ethics, vol. 102, no. 3, pp 485-511. April 1992: "Marxian socialism is often identified with the call to organize economic activity on a nonmarket basis."〕〔''Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists'', by Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. From "The Difference Between Marxism and Market Socialism" (pp. 61–63): "More fundamentally, a socialist society must be one in which the economy is run on the principle of the direct satisfaction of human needs...Exchange-value, prices and so money are goals in themselves in a capitalist society or in any market. There is no necessary connection between the accumulation of capital or sums of money and human welfare. Under conditions of backwardness, the spur of money and the accumulation of wealth has led to a massive growth in industry and technology ... It seems an odd argument to say that a capitalist will only be efficient in producing use-value of a good quality when trying to make more money than the next capitalist. It would seem easier to rely on the planning of use-values in a rational way, which because there is no duplication, would be produced more cheaply and be of a higher quality."〕〔''The Economics of Feasible Socialism Revisited'', by Nove, Alexander. 1991. (P.13): "Under socialism, by definition, it (private property and factor markets) would be eliminated. There would then be something like ‘scientific management’, ‘the science of socially organized production’, but it would not be economics."〕〔 "This understanding of socialism was held not just by revolutionary Marxist socialists but also by evolutionary socialists, Christian socialists, and even anarchists. At that time, there was also wide agreement about the basic institutions of the future socialist system: public ownership instead of private ownership of the means of production, economic planning instead of market forces, production for use instead of for profit."〕〔''Toward a Socialism for the Future, in the Wake of the Demise of the Socialism of the Past'', by Weisskopf, Thomas E. 1992. Review of Radical Political Economics, Vol. 24, No. 3-4, pp. 2: "Socialism has historically been committed to the improvement of people’s material standards of living. Indeed, in earlier days many socialists saw the promotion of improving material living standards as the primary basis for socialism’s claim to superiority over capitalism, for socialism was to overcome the irrationality and inefficiency seen as endemic to a capitalist system of economic organization."〕 By contrast, market socialism retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets, and, in some cases, the profit motive with respect to the operation of socially-owned enterprises and the allocation of capital goods between them.〔''Social Dividend versus Basic Income Guarantee in Market Socialism'', by Marangos, John. 2004. International Journal of Political Economy, vol. 34, no. 3, Fall 2004.〕 The feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. The socialist political movement includes a diverse array of political philosophies that originated amid the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 1700s out of general concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism.〔 In addition to the debate over the degree to which to rely on markets versus planning, the varieties of socialism differ in the type of social ownership they advocate, how management is to be organized within productive institutions, and the role of the state in constructing socialism.〔〔 Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, and state socialism versus libertarian socialism. While all tendencies of socialism consider themselves democratic, the term "democratic socialism" is often used to highlight its advocates' high value for democratic processes and political systems and usually to draw contrast to other socialist tendencies they may perceive to be undemocratic in their approach.〔Often, this definition is invoked to distinguish democratic socialism from authoritarian socialism as in Malcolm Hamilton ''Democratic Socialism in Britain and Sweden'' (St Martin's Press 1989),in Donald F. Busky, Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey Greenwood Publishing, 2000, See pp.7-8., Jim Tomlinson's ''Democratic Socialism and Economic Policy: The Attlee Years, 1945-1951'', Norman Thomas ''Democratic Socialism: a new appraisal'' or Roy Hattersley's ''Choose Freedom: The Future of Democratic Socialism''〕 By the late 19th century, and after further articulation and advancement by Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels as the culmination of technological development outstripping the economic dynamics of capitalism, "socialism" had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a post-capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production.〔Anthony Giddens. ''Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics''. 1998 edition. Cambridge, England, UK: Polity Press, 1994, 1998. p. 71.〕 Socialism proceeded to become the most influential secular worldwide movement and political-economic worldview of the 20th century,〔"Socialism was the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. It was a political ideology (or world view), a wide and divided political movement..." George Thomas Kurian (ed). ''The Encyclopedia of Political Science'' CQ Press. Washington D.c. 2011. Pgs. 1554〕 and while the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first ''de jure'' socialist state led to socialism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, many economists and intellectuals have argued that the Soviet economic model represented a form of state capitalism〔('State Capitalism' in the Soviet Union ), M.C. Howard and J.E. King〕〔Richard D. Wolff (27 June 2015). (Socialism Means Abolishing the Distinction Between Bosses and Employees ). ''Truthout.'' Retrieved 9 July 2015.〕 or a non-planned "command" or "managed" economy in practice. Socialist parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as environmentalism, feminism and liberalism.〔Garrett Ward Sheldon. ''Encyclopedia of Political Thought''. Fact on File. Inc. 2001. p. 280.〕 ==Etymology== For Andrew Vincent, "The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin ''sociare'', which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was ''societas''. This latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen."〔Andrew Vincent. Modern political ideologies. Wiley-Blackwell publishing. 2010. pg. 83〕 The term "socialism" was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled "utopian socialism". The term "socialism" was created to contrast against the liberal doctrine of "individualism", which stressed that people act or should act as if they are in isolation from one another.〔Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret Jacob, James R. Jacob. ''Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society – From 1600, Volume 2''. Ninth Edition. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2009. p. 540.〕 The original socialists condemned liberal individualism as failing to address social concerns of poverty, social oppression, and gross inequality of wealth.〔 They viewed liberal individualism as degenerating society into supporting selfish egoism that harmed community life through promoting a society based on competition.〔 They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism, that advocated a society based on cooperation.〔 The term ''socialism'' is attributed to Pierre Leroux,〔Leroux: socialism is "the doctrine which would not give up any of the principles of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" of the French Revolution of 1789. "Individualism and socialism" (1834)〕 and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France; and in Britain to Robert Owen in 1827, father of the cooperative movement.〔Oxford English Dictionary, etymology of socialism〕〔Russell, Bertrand (1972). A History of Western Philosophy. Touchstone. p. 781〕 The modern definition and usage of the term "socialism" settled by the 1860s, becoming the predominant term among the earlier associated words "co-operative", "mutualist" and "associationist". The term "communism" also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between "socialism" and "communism" was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 the term "socialism" was used by Marxists in place of "communism", which was now considered an old-fashion synonym of "socialism". It wasn't until 1917 after the Bolshevik revolution that "socialism" came to refer to a distinct stage between capitalism and communism, introduced by Vladimir Lenin as a means to defend the Bolshevik seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticisms that Russia was not sufficiently developed for socialist revolution. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Socialism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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