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TLA+ (pronounced as ''tee ell a plus'', ) is a formal specification language developed by Leslie Lamport. It is used to design, model, document, and verify concurrent systems. TLA+ has been described as exhaustively-testable pseudocode〔 〕 and blueprints for software systems.〔 〕 For design and documentation, TLA+ fulfills the same purpose as informal technical specifications. However, TLA+ specifications are written in a formal language of logic and mathematics, and the precision of specifications written in this language is intended to uncover design flaws before system implementation is underway.〔 〕 Since TLA+ specifications are written in a formal language, they are amenable to finite model checking. The model checker finds all possible system behaviours up to some number of execution steps, and examines them for violations of desired invariance properties such as safety and liveness. TLA+ specifications use basic set theory to define safety - bad things won't happen - and temporal logic to define liveness - good things eventually happen. TLA+ is also used to write machine-checked proofs of correctness both for algorithms and mathematical theorems. The proofs are written in a declarative, hierarchical style independent of any single theorem prover backend. Both formal and informal structured mathematical proofs can be written in TLA+; the language is similar to LaTeX, and tools exist to translate TLA+ specifications to LaTeX documents.〔 〕 TLA+ was introduced in 1999, following several decades of research into a verification method for concurrent systems. A toolchain has since developed, including an IDE and distributed model checker. The pseudocode-like language PlusCal was created in 2009; it transpiles to TLA+ and is useful for specifying sequential algorithms. TLA+2 was announced in 2014, expanding language support for proof constructs. The current TLA+ reference is (The TLA+ Hyperbook ) by Leslie Lamport. ==History== Modern temporal logic was developed by Arthur Prior in 1957, then called tense logic. Although Amir Pnueli was the first to seriously study the applications of temporal logic to computer science, Prior speculated to its use a decade earlier in 1967: : "The usefulness of systems of this sort (discrete time ) does not depend on any serious metaphysical assumption that time is discrete; they are applicable in limited fields of discourse in which we are concerned only with what happens next in a sequence of discrete states, e.g. in the working of a digital computer." Pnueli researched the use of temporal logic in specifying and reasoning about computer programs, introducing linear temporal logic in 1977. LTL became an important tool for analysis of concurrent programs, easily expressing properties such as mutual exclusion and freedom from deadlock.〔 〕 Concurrent with Pnueli's work on LTL, academics were working to generalize Hoare logic for verification of multiprocess programs. Leslie Lamport became interested in the problem after peer review found an error in a paper he submitted on mutual exclusion. Ed Ashcroft introduced invariance in his 1975 paper "Proving Assertions About Parallel Programs", which Lamport used to generalize Floyd's method in his 1977 paper "Proving Correctness of Multiprocess Programs". Lamport's paper also introduced safety and liveness as generalizations of partial correctness and termination, respectively.〔 〕 This method was used to verify the first concurrent garbage collection algorithm in a 1978 paper with Edsger Dijkstra.〔 〕 Lamport first encountered Pnueli's LTL during a 1978 seminar at Stanford organized by Susan Owicki. According to Lamport, "I was sure that temporal logic was some kind of abstract nonsense that would never have any practical application, but it seemed like fun, so I attended." In 1980 he published "'Sometime' is Sometimes 'Not Never'", which became one of the most frequently-cited papers in the temporal logic literature.〔 〕 Lamport worked on writing temporal logic specifications during his time at SRI, but found the approach to be impractical: : "However, I became disillusioned with temporal logic when I saw how Schwartz, Melliar-Smith, and Fritz Vogt were spending days trying to specify a simple FIFO queue - arguing over whether the properties they listed were sufficient. I realized that, despite its aesthetic appeal, writing a specification as a conjunction of temporal properties just didn't work in practice." His search for a practical method of specification resulted in the 1983 paper "Specifying Concurrent Programming Modules", which introduced the idea of describing state transitions as boolean-valued functions of primed and unprimed variables.〔 〕 Work continued throughout the 1980s, and Lamport began publishing papers on the temporal logic of actions in 1990; however, it was not formally introduced until "The Temporal Logic of Actions" was published in 1994. TLA enabled the use of actions in temporal formulas, which according to Lamport "provides an elegant way to formalize and systematize all the reasoning used in concurrent system verification."〔 〕 TLA specifications mostly consisted of ordinary non-temporal mathematics, which Lamport found less cumbersome than a purely temporal specification. TLA provided a mathematical foundation to the specification language TLA+, introduced with the paper "Specifying Concurrent Systems with TLA+" in 1999.〔 Later that same year, Yuan Yu wrote the TLC model checker for TLA+ specifications; TLC was used to find errors in the cache coherence protocol for a Compaq multiprocessor.〔 〕 Lamport published a full textbook on TLA+ in 2002, titled "Specifying Systems: The TLA+ Language and Tools for Software Engineers".〔 〕 PlusCal was introduced in 2009,〔 〕 and the TLA+ proof system (TLAPS) in 2012.〔 TLA+2 was announced in 2014, adding some additional language constructs as well as greatly increasing in-language support for the proof system.〔 Lamport is engaged in creating an updated TLA+ reference, "The TLA+ Hyperbook". The incomplete work is (available ) from his official website. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「TLA+」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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