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The Vedas (;〔("Veda" ). ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''.〕 Sanskrit: ', "knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.〔see e.g. ; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in: ; ; ''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09〕〔Sanujit Ghose (2011). "(Religious Developments in Ancient India )" in ''Ancient History Encyclopedia''.〕 Hindus consider the Vedas to be ''apauruṣeya'', which means "not of a man, superhuman"〔Vaman Shivaram Apte, (''The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary'' ), see apauruSeya〕 and "impersonal, authorless".〔D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, ISBN , pages 196-197〕〔Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195384963, page 290〕〔Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, ISBN 978-1409466819, page 128〕 Vedas are also called ' ("what is heard") literature, distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called ' ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times.〔Sheldon Pollock (2011), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia (Editor: Federico Squarcini), Anthem, ISBN 978-0857284303, pages 41-58〕〔Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Handbook of Oriental Studies, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004125568, pages 13-14〕 In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.〔(Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata ) Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pages 85-86〕 The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by ''Rishis'' (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.〔 There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.〔〔Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977〕 Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).〔Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 35-39〕〔A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0595384556, pages 8-14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195332612, page 285〕〔Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447016032〕 Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).〔A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0595384556, pages 8-14〕〔Barbara A. Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, pages 351-357〕 The various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools. Despite their differences, just like śramaṇa traditions, various Hindu traditions dwell on, express and teach similar ideas such as karma (retributive action) and moksha (liberation) in the fourth layer of the Vedas – the Upanishads.〔 ==Etymology and usage== The Sanskrit word ' "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root ''vid-'' "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root ', meaning "see" or "know".〔; 〕 The noun is from Proto-Indo-European ', cognate to Greek "aspect", "form" . Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense ', cognate to Greek ''(w)oida'' "I know". Root cognates are Greek ''ἰδέα'', English ''wit'', etc., Latin ''videō'' "I see", etc.〔see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 ''Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch'' s.v. '²; Rix' ''Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben'', '.〕 The Sanskrit term ' as a common noun means "knowledge", but can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in ' "medical science", ' "science of agriculture" or ' "science of snakes" (already found in the early Upanishads); ' means "with evil knowledge, ignorant".〔Monier-Williams (1899)〕 A related word ''Vedena'' appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda.〔Sanskrit: यः समिधा य आहुती यो वेदेन ददाश मर्तो अग्नये । यो नमसा स्वध्वरः ॥५॥, (ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ८.१९ ), Wikisource〕 It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as "ritual lore",〔K.F. Geldner, Der Rig-Veda, Harvard Oriental Series 33-37, Cambridge 1951〕 as "studying the Veda" by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as "bundle of grass" by Max Müller, and as "with the Veda" by H.H. Wilson.〔HH Wilson, (Rig-veda Sanhita ) Sixth Ashtaka, First Adhayaya, Sukta VII (8.19.5), page 291, Trubner London〕 Vedas are called ''Maṛai'' or ''Vaymoli'' in parts of South India. Marai literally means "hidden, a secret, mystery".〔Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-0872499652, pages 194〕〔John Carman (1989), The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226093055, pages 259-261〕 In some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli.〔Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-0872499652, pages 43, 117-119〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Vedas」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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