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argument
In logic and philosophy, an argument is a series of statements typically used to persuade someone of something or to present reasons for accepting a conclusion.〔("Argument", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy." ) "In everyday life, we often use the word "argument" to mean a verbal dispute or disagreement. This is not the way this word is usually used in philosophy. However, the two uses are related. Normally, when two people verbally disagree with each other, each person attempts to convince the other that his/her viewpoint is the right one. Unless he or she merely results to name calling or threats, he or she typically presents an argument for his or her position, in the sense described above. In philosophy, "arguments" are those statements a person makes in the attempt to convince someone of something, or present reasons for accepting a given conclusion."〕〔Ralph H. Johnson, ''Manifest Rationality: A pragmatic theory of argument'' (New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum, 2000), 46-49.〕 The general form of an argument in a natural language is that of premises (typically in the form of propositions, statements or sentences) in support of a claim: the conclusion.〔Ralph H. Johnson, ''Manifest Rationality: A pragmatic theory of argument'' (New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum, 2000), 46.〕〔The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd Ed. CUM, 1995 "Argument: a sequence of statements such that some of them (the premises) purport to give reason to accept another of them, the conclusion"〕〔( Stanford Enc. Phil., ''Classical Logic'' )〕 The structure of some arguments can also be set out in a formal language, and formally defined "arguments" can be made independently of natural language arguments, as in math, logic, and computer science.
In a typical deductive argument, the premises are meant to provide a guarantee of the ''truth'' of the conclusion, while in an inductive argument, they are thought to provide reasons supporting the conclusion's ''probable'' truth.〔("Deductive and Inductive Arguments," Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ).〕 The standards for evaluating non-deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria than truth, for example, the persuasiveness of so-called "indispensability claims" in transcendental arguments,〔hCharles Taylor, "The Validity of Transcendental Arguments", ''Philosophical Arguments'' (Harvard, 1995), 20-33. "() arguments consist of a string of what one could call indispensability claims. They move from their starting points to their conclusions by showing that the condition stated in the conclusion is indispensable to the feature identified at the start… Thus we could spell out Kant's transcendental deduction in the first edition in three stages: experience must have an object, that is, be ''of'' something; for this it must be coherent; and to be coherent it must be shaped by the understanding through the categories."〕 the quality of hypotheses in retroduction, or even the disclosure of new possibilities for thinking and acting.
The standards and criteria used in evaluating arguments and their forms of reasoning are studied in logic.〔("Argument", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy." )〕 Ways of formulating arguments effectively are studied in rhetoric (see also: argumentation theory). An argument in a formal language shows the logical form of the symbolically represented or natural language arguments obtained by its interpretations.
== Formal and informal ==
Informal arguments as studied in ''informal logic'', are presented in ordinary language and are intended for everyday discourse. Conversely, formal arguments are studied in ''formal logic'' (historically called ''symbolic logic'', more commonly referred to as ''mathematical logic'' today) and are expressed in a formal language. Informal logic may be said to emphasize the study of argumentation, whereas formal logic emphasizes implication and inference. Informal arguments are sometimes implicit. That is, the rational structure –the relationship of claims, premises, warrants, relations of implication, and conclusion –is not always spelled out and immediately visible and must sometimes be made explicit by analysis.
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