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The Carbonari (Italian for "charcoal burners") were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. The Italian Carbonari may have further influenced other revolutionary groups in France,〔 Spain, Portugal and possibly Russia.〔 〕 Although their goals often had a patriotic and liberal focus, they lacked a clear immediate political agenda.〔Denis Mack Smith, in ''The Making of Italy'' (1968) refers to their 'thoroughly indeterminate' political program and to carbonari as a 'generalized movement of protest'〕 They were a focus for those unhappy with the repressive political situation in Italy following 1815, especially in the south of the Italian Peninsula.〔Denis Mack Smith, in ''The Making of Italy'' (1968) and Christopher Duggan, in ''The Force of Destiny'' (2008)〕 Members of the Carbonari, and those influenced by them took part in important events in the process of Italian unification (called the ''Risorgimento)'', especially the failed Revolution of 1820,〔 and in the further development of Italian nationalism. In the north of Italy other groups, such as the Adelfia and the Filadelfia, were more important.〔 ==Organization== The carbonari were a secret society also known as the 'Freemasonry of the Woods', broken into small covert cells scattered across Italy. Although agendas varied, evidence suggests that despite regional variations, most of the membership agreed upon the creation of a liberal, unified Italy.〔 〕 Although some of the society's documents claimed that it had origins in medieval France,〔 and that its progenitors were under the sponsorship of Francis I of France during the sixteenth century, this claim can not be verified by outside sources. Although a plethora of theories have been advanced as to the origins of the Carbonari, the organization most likely emerged as an offshoot of Freemasonry,〔 in reaction to the spread of liberal ideas from the French Revolution; it first became influential in the Kingdom of Naples (under the control of Gioacchino Murat) and in the Papal States, the most resistant opposition to the ''Risorgimento''. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「carbonari」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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