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Consolation, consolement, and solace are terms referring to psychological comfort given to someone who has suffered severe, upsetting loss, such as the death of a loved one. It is typically provided by expressing shared regret for that loss and highlighting the hope for positive events in the future. Consolation is an important topic arising in history, the arts, philosophy, and psychology. In the field of medicine, consolation has been broadly described as follows: In some contexts, particularly in religious terminology, consolation is described as the opposite or counterpart to the experience of "desolation", or complete loss.〔David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan, ''Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion'' (2010), p. 240.〕 ==History== The desire to console others is an expression of empathy, and appears to be instinctual in primates. Dutch primatologist Frans de Waal has observed acts of consolation occurring among non-human primates such as chimpanzees.〔Frans de Waal, ''The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society'' (2009), p. 194.〕 The formal concept of consolation as a social practice has existed since ancient times. For example, as an examination of letters from ancient Rome indicates of that culture: Although "()he most frequent occasion for consolation was death", ancient consolation literature addressed other causes for consolation, including "exile, poverty, political failure, illness, shipwreck, and old age".〔Michael Gagarin, ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'', Volume 1 (2010), p. 281.〕 Papyrus letters from that era "often employ standard consolations, such as 'death is common to all' and frequently mention the dispatch of food stuffs".〔 It is noted that food may have been offered as a further consolation to the bereaved, or may have had a religious purpose.〔 It is reported that in the Fifth Century BCE, the Sophist, Antiphon, set up a booth in a public agora where he offered consolation to the bereaved.〔 Furthermore, "()isits of consolation in antiquity extended to popular levels as well", including visits by philosophers intended to hearten villages that were facing invasion.〔Abraham Smith, ''Comfort One Another: Reconstructing the Rhetoric and Audience of 1 Thessalonians'' (1995), p. 48.〕 In both ancient Greece and Rome, the ''Consolatio'' or consolatory oration was a type of ceremonial oration, typically used rhetorically to comfort mourners at funerals. It became one of the most popular classical rhetoric topics.〔Ernst Robert Curtius, ''European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages'', trans. W.R. Trask (Princeton: 1953) section 5.1 ''Topics of Consolatory Oratory'' pp.80-2〕〔Petrie, Graham (1970) "(A Rhetorical Topic in 'Tristram Shandy' " ), ''Modern Language Review'', Vol. 65, No. 2, April 1970, p. 262〕 The Platonist philosopher Crantor of Soli (c. 325–c. 275 BC), a member of Plato's Academy, pioneered the writing of essays in this distinct tradition. Although only fragments of his essays have survived, his influence is noted in the works of later writers, particularly Cicero's ''Tusculan Disputations'' and Plutarch's ''Consolation to Apollonius''.〔Baltussen, Han. "Personal grief and public mourning in Plutarch's consolation to his wife", '' American Journal of Philology'' 130 (2009): 67-67. July-Aug. 2009. :" Introduction: Beginnings of consolation."〕 Seneca the Younger (4 BC–65 AD) produced the most recognizable examples of ''Consolatio'' in his three Consolations, ''Ad Marciam'', ''Ad Polybium'', and ''Ad Helviam Matrem''. The most recognizable example of ''Consolatio'' in verse form was written by the pseudo-Ovidian, Consolatio ad Liviam.〔Scourfield, J. H. D. Consoling Heliodorus: a commentary on Jerome, Letter 60. N.p.:Oxford UP, 1993. Google Books. Web. 19 July 2009. Historically and philosophically, consolation plays an important symbolic role in the sixth century work, ''Consolation of Philosophy''. The author, Boethius, describes himself as being consoled by "Lady Philosophy" (a personification of philosophy) after having been sentenced to death for alleged crimes against the state.〔John Marenbon, ''The Cambridge Companion to Boethius'' (2009), p. 308.〕 Taken literally, Boethius consoles himself for the anguish of knowing that his death has been decreed by philosophizing. Religious figures are often depicted as offering consolation to their followers during times of grief. For example, in the ''Mahabharata'', the Hindu avatar Krishna consoles his brother Balarama and the princess Sathya Bama after they have been humiliated for their prideful ways.〔M. Padmanabhan, Meera Ravi Shankar, ''Tales of Krishna from Mahabharatha'' (2004), p. 46.〕 More famously, in the ''Bhagavad Gita'', when Arjuna learned that Krishna was dying of an injury, Krishna consoled him with touching philosophy.〔Hullasa Behera, ''50 Flowers From Bhagavad Gita'' (1998), p. 17.〕 In Christianity, one of the iconic Stations of the Cross is sometimes titled, "Jesus consoles the daughters of Jerusalem".〔Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt, ''The Synoptics: On the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke'' (2005), p. 188.〕 A substantial body of Christian literature exists exhorting followers to take consolation in their faith for the various ills that befall them in life. One branch of Christianity, Catharism, practiced a sacrament called ''consolamentum'', which required consolation for the inevitable regret of living in order to move nearer to God or to approach heaven. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「consolation」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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