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A counterculture (also written counter-culture) is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores.〔〔Eric Donald Hirsch. ''The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy''. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-65597-8. (1993) p 419. "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. In the 1960s and Europe before fading in the 1970s... fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."〕 A countercultural movement expresses the ethos and aspirations of a specific population during a well-defined era. When oppositional forces reach critical mass, countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural changes. Prominent examples of countercultures in Europe and North America include Romanticism (1790–1840), Bohemianism (1850–1910), the more fragmentary counterculture of the Beat Generation (1944–1964), and perhaps most prominently, the counterculture of the 1960s (1964–1974), usually associated with the hippie subculture.〔 ==Definition and characteristics== The term ''counterculture'' is attributed to Theodore Roszak,〔〔 author of ''The Making of a Counter Culture''.〔His conception of the counterculture is discussed in Whiteley, 2012 & 2014 and Bennett, 2012.〕 It became prominent in the news media amid the social revolution that swept North and South America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand during the 1960s and early 1970s.〔"counterculture," ''Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary'', 2008, (MWCCul ).〕〔F.X. Shea, S.J., "Reason and the Religion of the Counter-Culture", ''Harvard Theological Review'', Vol. 66/1 (1973), pp. 95-111, (JSTOR-3B2-X ). 〕〔Roszak, Theodore, ''The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and Its Youthful Opposition'', 1968/1969, Doubleday, New York, ISBN 0-385-07329-1; ISBN 978-0-385-07329-5.〕 Scholars differ in the characteristics and specificity they attribute to "counterculture". "Mainstream" culture is of course also difficult to define, and in some ways becomes identified and understood through contrast with counterculture. Counterculture might oppose mass culture (or "media culture"),〔Gelder, ''Subcultures'' (2007) p. 4. "...to the banalities of mass cultural forms".〕 or middle-class culture and values.〔Hodkinson and Deicke, ''Youth Cultures'' (2007), p. 205. "...opposition to, the middle-class establishment of adults."〕 Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized in terms of generational conflict and rejection of older or adult values.〔Hebdige, ''Subculture'' (1979), p.127. "defining themselves against the parent culture."〕 Counterculture may or may not be explicitly political. It typically involves criticism or rejection of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying hope for a better life or a new society.〔Hall & Jefferson, ''Resistance Through Rituals'' (1991), p.61. "They make articulate their opposition to dominant values and institutions—even when, as frequently occurred, this does not take the form of an overtly political response."〕 It does not look favorably on party politics or authoritarianism.〔Hazlehurst & Hazlehurst, ''Gangs and Youth Subcultures'' (1998), p.59. "There does seem to be some general commitment towards antiauthoritarianism, a rejection of the traditional party political system which is considered irrelevant."〕 Typically, a "fringe culture" expands and grows into a counterculture by defining its own values in opposition to mainstream norms. Countercultures tend to peak, then go into decline, leaving a lasting impact on mainstream cultural values. Their life cycles include phases of rejection, growth, partial acceptance and absorption into the mainstream. During the late 1960s, hippies became the largest and most visible countercultural group in the United States.〔Yablonsky, Lewis (1968), The Hippie Trip, New York: Western Publishing, Inc., ISBN 978-0595001163, pp 21-37.〕 The "cultural shadows" left by the Romantics, Bohemians, Beats and Hippies remain visible in contemporary Western culture. According to Sheila Whiteley, "recent developments in sociological theory complicate and problematize theories developed in the 1960s, with digital technology, for example, providing an impetus for new understandings of counterculture".〔Cf. Whiteley, 2012 & 2014.〕 Andy Bennett writes that "despite the theoretical arguments that can be raised against the sociological value of counterculture as a meaningful term for categorising social action, like subculture, the term lives on as a concept in social and cultural theory… () become part of a received, mediated memory". However, "this involved not simply the utopian but also the dystopian and that while festivals such as those held at Monterey and Woodstock might appear to embrace the former, the deaths of such iconic figures as Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison and Janis Joplin, the nihilistic mayhem at Altamont, and the shadowy figure of Charles Manson cast a darker light on its underlying agenda, one that reminds us that ‘pathological issues () still very much at large in today’s world".〔Cf. Andy Bennett, 2012.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「counterculture」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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