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Demonstratives are words like ''this'' and ''that'', used to indicate which entities are being referred to and to distinguish those entities from others. They are typically deictic, their meaning depending on a particular frame of its reference. Demonstratives are often used in spatial deixis (using the context of the physical surroundings of the speaker and sometimes the listener), but also in intra-discourse reference - so called "discourse deixis" (including abstract concepts) or anaphora, where the meaning is dependent on something other than the relative physical location of the speaker, for example whether something is currently being said or was said earlier. Demonstrative words include demonstrative adjectives or demonstrative determiners, which qualify nouns (as in ''Put that coat on''), and demonstrative pronouns, which stand independently (as in ''Put that on''). The demonstratives in English are ''this'', ''that'', ''these'', ''those'', and the archaic ''yon'' and ''yonder'', along with ''this one'' or ''that one'' as substitutes for the pronoun use of ''this'' or ''that''. ==Distal and proximal demonstratives== Many languages, such as English and Chinese, make a two-way distinction between demonstratives. Typically, one set of demonstratives is proximal, indicating objects close to the speaker (English ''this''), and the other series is distal, indicating objects further removed from the speaker (English ''that''). Other languages, like Nandi, Spanish, Portuguese, Armenian, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Georgian, Basque and Japanese make a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between proximal or first person (objects near to the speaker), medial or second person (objects near to the addressee), and distal or third person (objects far from both). Italian also provided for a medial (''codesto/codesta'' for things, ''costui/costei'' for people), but it fell out of use in the 19th century (though it's still commonly used in Tuscany). So for example, in Portuguese: : ''Esta maçã'' : "this apple" : ''Essa maçã'' : "that apple (near you)" : ''Aquela maçã'' : "that apple (over there, away from both of us)"〔In Brazilian Portuguese "este" (this) is sometimes reduced to "es'e", making it sound like "esse" (that).〕 in Armenian (based on the proximal "s", medial "d/t", and distal "n"): : ''այս խնձորը'' : "this apple" : ''այդ խնձորը'' : "that apple (near you)" : ''այն խնձորը'' : "that apple (over there, away from both of us)" and, in Georgian: : ''amisi mama'' : "this one's father" : ''imisi coli'' : "that one's wife" : ''magisi saxli'' : "that (by you) one's house" and, in Ukrainian (note that Ukrainian has not only number, but also three grammatical genders in singular): : ''цей чоловік'', ''ця жінка'', ''це яблуко'', ''ці яблука'' : "this man", "this woman", "this apple", "these apples" : ''той чоловік'', ''та жінка'', ''те яблуко'', ''ті яблука'' : "that man", "that woman", "that apple", "those apples" : ''он той чоловік'', ''он та жінка'', ''он те яблуко'', ''он ті яблука'' : "that man (over there, away from both of us)", "that woman(over there, away from both of us)", "that apple (over there, away from both of us)", "those apples (over there, away from both of us)" and, in Japanese: : ''このリンゴ'' : "this apple" : ''そのリンゴ'' : "that apple" : ''あのリンゴ'' : that apple (over there)" In Nandi (Kalenjin of Kenya, Uganda and Eastern Congo): ''Chego chu, Chego choo, Chego chuun'' "this milk", "that milk" (near the second person) and "that milk" (away from the first and second person, near a third person or even further away). Spanish, Tamil and Seri also make this distinction. French has a two-way distinction, with the use of postpositions "-ci" (proximal) and "-là" (distal) as in ''cet homme-ci'' and ''cet homme-là'', as well as the pronouns ''ce'' and ''cela''/''ça''. English has an archaic but occasionally used three-way distinction of ''this'', ''that'', and ''yonder''. Arabic has also a three-way distinction. Very rich, with more than 70 variants, the demonstrative pronouns in Arabic principally change depending on the gender and the number. They mark a distinction in number for singular, dual, and plural. For example : : (''haːðaː arrajul'') 'this man'. : (''ðaːka arrajul'') 'that man'. : (''ðaːlika arrajul'') 'that man' (over there). In Modern German (and the Scandinavian languages), the demonstrative is generally distance-neutral, and the deictic value may be defined more precisely by means of adverbs: : ''dieses Mädchen hier'' ~ ''dieses Mädchen dort/da'' : "this girl ()" ~ "that girl ()" A distal demonstrative exists in German, cognate to the English ''yonder'', but it is used only in formal registers. : ''jenes Mädchen'' : "yonder girl" There are languages which make a four-way distinction, such as Northern Sami: : ''Dát biila'' : "this car" : ''Diet biila'' : "that car (near you)" : ''Duot biila'' : "that car (over there, away from both of us but rather near)" : ''Dot biila'' : "that car (over there, far away)" These four-way distinctions are often termed proximal, mesioproximal, mesiodistal, and distal. Many non-European languages make further distinctions; for example, whether the object referred to is uphill or downhill from the speaker, whether the object is visible or not (as in Malagasy), and whether the object can be pointed to as a whole or only in part. The Eskimo–Aleut languages, and the Kiranti branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family are particularly well known for their many contrasts. The demonstratives in Seri are compound forms based on the definite articles (themselves derived from verbs) and therefore incorporate the positional information of the articles (standing, sitting, lying, coming, going) in addition to the three-way spatial distinction. This results in a quite elaborated set of demonstratives. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「demonstrative」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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