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Dialectic or dialectics (, ''dialektikḗ''), also known as the dialectical method, is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments.〔The Republic (Plato), 348b〕 The term was popularized by Plato's Socratic dialogues but the act itself has been central to European and Indian philosophy since antiquity. The term dialectics is not synonymous with the term debate. While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view, in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgment. Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent; proving one's argument correct; or proving the opponent's argument incorrect. Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser; however clear winners are frequently determined by either a judge, jury, or by group consensus. The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term rhetoric, a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience. Concepts, like ''"logos"'' or rational appeal, ''"pathos"'' or emotional appeal, and ''"ethos"'' or ethical appeal, are intentionally used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience. The Sophists taught ''aretē'' (, ''quality'', ''excellence'') as the highest value, and the determinant of one's actions in life. The Sophists taught artistic quality in oratory (motivation via speech) as a manner of demonstrating one's ''aretē''. Oratory was taught as an art form, used to please and to influence other people via excellent speech; nonetheless, the Sophists taught the pupil to seek ''aretē'' in all endeavours, not solely in oratory. Socrates favoured ''truth'' as the highest value, proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion: ergo, ''dialectic''. Socrates valued rationality (appealing to logic, not emotion) as the proper means for persuasion, the discovery of truth, and the determinant for one's actions. To Socrates, ''truth'', not ''aretē'', was the greater good, and each person should, above all else, seek truth to guide one's life. Therefore, Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof.〔see Gorgias, 449B: "Socrates: Would you be willing then, Gorgias, to continue the discussion as we are now doing (), by way of question and answer, and to put off to another occasion the (emotional) speeches () that (Sophist ) Polus began?"〕 Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from the Indosphere (Greater India) and the West (Europe). These forms include the Socratic method, Hindu, Buddhist, Medieval, Hegelian dialectics, Marxist, Talmudic, and Neo-orthodoxy. ==Principles== The purpose of the dialectic method of reasoning is resolution of disagreement through rational discussion, and, ultimately, the search for truth.〔Pinto, R. C. (2001). ''Argument, inference and dialectic: collected papers on informal logic''. Argumentation library, vol. 4. Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic. pp. 138–139.〕〔Eemeren, F. H. v. (2003). ''Anyone who has a view: theoretical contributions to the study of argumentation''. Argumentation library, vol. 8. Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic. p. 92.〕 One way to proceed—the Socratic method—is to show that a given hypothesis (with other admissions) leads to a contradiction; thus, forcing the withdrawal of the hypothesis as a candidate for truth (see reductio ad absurdum). Another dialectical resolution of disagreement is by denying a presupposition of the contending thesis and antithesis; thereby, proceeding to ''sublation'' (transcendence) to ''synthesis'', a third thesis. Fichtean Dialectics (Hegelian Dialectics) is based upon four concepts: # Everything is transient and finite, existing in the medium of time. # Everything is composed of contradictions (opposing forces). # Gradual changes lead to crises, turning points when one force overcomes its opponent force (quantitative change leads to qualitative change). # Change is helical (spiral), not circular (negation of the negation). The concept of ''dialectic'' (as a unity of opposites) existed in the philosophy of Heraclitus of Ephesus, who proposed that everything is in constant change, as a result of inner strife and opposition.〔Herbermann, C. G. (1913) The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, and history of the Catholic church. New York: The Encyclopedia press, inc. (Page 160 )〕〔Howard Ll. Williams, ''Hegel, Heraclitus, and Marx's Dialectic''. Harvester Wheatsheaf 1989. 256 pages. ISBN 0-7450-0527-6〕〔Denton Jaques Snider, Ancient European Philosophy: The History of Greek Philosophy Psychologically Treated. Sigma publishing co. 1903. 730 pages. Pages 116-119.〕 Hence, the history of the dialectical method is the history of philosophy.〔Cassin, Barbara (ed.), ''Vocabulaire européen des philosophies'' ==Western dialectical forms== 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Dialectic or dialectics (, ''dialektikḗ''), also known as the dialectical method, is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments.The Republic (Plato), 348b The term was popularized by Plato's Socratic dialogues but the act itself has been central to European and Indian philosophy since antiquity.The term dialectics is not synonymous with the term debate. While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view, in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgment. Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent; proving one's argument correct; or proving the opponent's argument incorrect. Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser; however clear winners are frequently determined by either a judge, jury, or by group consensus. The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term rhetoric, a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience. Concepts, like ''"logos"'' or rational appeal, ''"pathos"'' or emotional appeal, and ''"ethos"'' or ethical appeal, are intentionally used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience.The Sophists taught ''aretē'' (, ''quality'', ''excellence'') as the highest value, and the determinant of one's actions in life. The Sophists taught artistic quality in oratory (motivation via speech) as a manner of demonstrating one's ''aretē''. Oratory was taught as an art form, used to please and to influence other people via excellent speech; nonetheless, the Sophists taught the pupil to seek ''aretē'' in all endeavours, not solely in oratory.Socrates favoured ''truth'' as the highest value, proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion: ergo, ''dialectic''. Socrates valued rationality (appealing to logic, not emotion) as the proper means for persuasion, the discovery of truth, and the determinant for one's actions. To Socrates, ''truth'', not ''aretē'', was the greater good, and each person should, above all else, seek truth to guide one's life. Therefore, Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof.see Gorgias, 449B: "Socrates: Would you be willing then, Gorgias, to continue the discussion as we are now doing (), by way of question and answer, and to put off to another occasion the (emotional) speeches () that (Sophist ) Polus began?" Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from the Indosphere (Greater India) and the West (Europe). These forms include the Socratic method, Hindu, Buddhist, Medieval, Hegelian dialectics, Marxist, Talmudic, and Neo-orthodoxy.==Principles==The purpose of the dialectic method of reasoning is resolution of disagreement through rational discussion, and, ultimately, the search for truth.Pinto, R. C. (2001). ''Argument, inference and dialectic: collected papers on informal logic''. Argumentation library, vol. 4. Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic. pp. 138–139.Eemeren, F. H. v. (2003). ''Anyone who has a view: theoretical contributions to the study of argumentation''. Argumentation library, vol. 8. Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic. p. 92. One way to proceed—the Socratic method—is to show that a given hypothesis (with other admissions) leads to a contradiction; thus, forcing the withdrawal of the hypothesis as a candidate for truth (see reductio ad absurdum). Another dialectical resolution of disagreement is by denying a presupposition of the contending thesis and antithesis; thereby, proceeding to ''sublation'' (transcendence) to ''synthesis'', a third thesis.Fichtean Dialectics (Hegelian Dialectics) is based upon four concepts:」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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