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An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system.〔Tansley (1934); Molles (1999), p. 482; Chapin ''et al''. (2002), p. 380; Schulze ''et al''. (2005); p. 400; Gurevitch ''et al''. (2006), p. 522; Smith & Smith 2012, p. G-5〕 These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.〔Odum, EP (1971) Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York, ISBN 0534420664〕 The relationship between the abiotic components and the biotic components of the ecosystem is termed 'holocoenosis'. As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment,〔Schulze ''et al''. (2005), p.400〕 they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces〔Chapin ''et al''. (2002), p. 380; Schulze ''et al''. (2005); p. 400〕 (although some scientists say that the entire planet is an ecosystem).〔Willis (1997), p. 269; Chapin ''et al''. (2002), p. 5; Krebs (2009). p. 572〕 Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.〔Chapin ''et al''. (2002), p. 10〕 Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors. External factors such as climate, the parent material that forms the soil, and topography control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem.〔Chapin ''et al''. (2002), pp. 11–13〕 Other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to periodic disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance.〔 Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have very different characteristics simply because they contain different species.〔 The introduction of non-native species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops.〔 While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading.〔 Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present. Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate.〔 Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance and succession. Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend; the principles of ecosystem management suggest that rather than managing individual species, natural resources should be managed at the level of the ecosystem itself. Classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this. ==History and development== The term "ecosystem" was first used in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley.〔The term ecosystem was actually coined by Arthur Roy Clapham, who came up with the word at Tansley's request.(Willis 1997)〕〔Willis (1997)〕 Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment.〔Chapin ''et al''. (2002), pp. 7–11)〕 He later refined the term, describing it as "The whole system, ... including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment".〔Tansley (1935)〕 Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates.〔 Tansley later〔Tansley, AG (1939) The British islands and their vegetation. Volume 1 of 2. Cambridge University Press, United. Kingdom. 484 pg.〕 defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. G. Evelyn Hutchinson, a pioneering limnologist who was a contemporary of Tansley's, combined Charles Elton's ideas about trophic ecology with those of Russian geochemist Vladimir Vernadsky to suggest that mineral nutrient availability in a lake limited algal production which would, in turn, limit the abundance of animals that feed on algae. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the primary driver of the ecosystem. Hutchinson's students, brothers Howard T. Odum and Eugene P. Odum, further developed a "systems approach" to the study of ecosystems, allowing them to study the flow of energy and material through ecological systems.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「ecosystem」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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