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Futurism ((イタリア語:Futurismo)) was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early 20th century. It emphasized speed, technology, youth and violence and objects such as the car, the aeroplane and the industrial city. It was largely an Italian phenomenon, though there were parallel movements in Russia, England and elsewhere. The Futurists practised in every medium of art, including painting, sculpture, ceramics, graphic design, industrial design, interior design, urban design, theatre, film, fashion, textiles, literature, music, architecture and even gastronomy. Its key figures were the Italians Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Gino Severini, Giacomo Balla, Antonio Sant'Elia, Bruno Munari, Benedetta Cappa and Luigi Russolo, the Russians Natalia Goncharova, Velimir Khlebnikov, Igor Severyanin, David Burliuk, Aleksei Kruchenykh and Vladimir Mayakovsky, and the Portuguese Almada Negreiros. It glorified modernity and aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past. Cubism contributed to the formation of Italian Futurism's artistic style. Important Futurist works included Marinetti's ''Manifesto of Futurism'', Boccioni's sculpture ''Unique Forms of Continuity in Space'' and Balla's painting, ''Abstract Speed + Sound'' (pictured). To some extent Futurism influenced the art movements Art Deco, Constructivism, Surrealism, Dada, and to a greater degree Precisionism, Rayonism, and Vorticism. ==Italian Futurism== Futurism is an avant-garde movement founded in Milan in 1909 by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti.〔 Marinetti launched the movement in his ''Futurist Manifesto'',〔(Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, ''I manifesti del futurismo'', February 20, 2009 )〕 which he published for the first time on 5 February 1909 in ''La gazzetta dell'Emilia'', an article then reproduced in the French daily newspaper ''Le Figaro'' on Saturday 20 February 1909.〔(Le Figaro, ''Le Futurisme'', 1909/02/20 (Numéro 51) ). Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France〕〔(Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, ''Declaration of Futurism'', published in Poesia, Volume 5, Number 6, April 1909 ) (Futurist manifesto translated to English). Blue Mountain Project〕〔(Futurist Manifesto, reproduced in ''Futurist Aristocracy'', New York, April 1923 )〕 He was soon joined by the painters Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Giacomo Balla, Gino Severini and the composer Luigi Russolo. Marinetti expressed a passionate loathing of everything old, especially political and artistic tradition. "We want no part of it, the past", he wrote, "we the young and strong ''Futurists!''" The Futurists admired speed, technology, youth and violence, the car, the airplane and the industrial city, all that represented the technological triumph of humanity over nature, and they were passionate nationalists. They repudiated the cult of the past and all imitation, praised originality, "however daring, however violent", bore proudly "the smear of madness", dismissed art critics as useless, rebelled against harmony and good taste, swept away all the themes and subjects of all previous art, and gloried in science. Publishing manifestos was a feature of Futurism, and the Futurists (usually led or prompted by Marinetti) wrote them on many topics, including painting, architecture, religion, clothing and cooking.〔Umbro Apollonio (ed.), ''Futurist Manifestos'', MFA Publications, 2001 ISBN 978-0-87846-627-6〕 The founding manifesto did not contain a positive artistic programme, which the Futurists attempted to create in their subsequent ''Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting'' (1914).〔(I Manifesti del futurismo, lanciati da Marinetti, et al, 1914 )〕 This committed them to a "universal dynamism", which was to be directly represented in painting. Objects in reality were not separate from one another or from their surroundings: "The sixteen people around you in a rolling motor bus are in turn and at the same time one, ten four three; they are motionless and they change places. ... The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, and in their turn the houses throw themselves upon the motor bus and are blended with it." The Futurist painters were slow to develop a distinctive style and subject matter. In 1910 and 1911 they used the techniques of Divisionism, breaking light and color down into a field of stippled dots and stripes, which had been originally created by Giovanni Segantini and others. Later, Severini, who lived in Paris, attributed their backwardness in style and method at this time to their distance from Paris, the centre of avant garde art.〔Severini, G., ''The Life of a Painter'', Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-691-04419-8〕 Severini was the first to come into contact with Cubism and following a visit to Paris in 1911 the Futurist painters adopted the methods of the Cubists. Cubism offered them a means of analysing energy in paintings and expressing dynamism. They often painted modern urban scenes. Carrà's ''Funeral of the Anarchist Galli'' (1910–11) is a large canvas representing events that the artist had himself been involved in, in 1904. The action of a police attack and riot is rendered energetically with diagonals and broken planes. His ''Leaving the Theatre'' (1910–11) uses a Divisionist technique to render isolated and faceless figures trudging home at night under street lights. Boccioni's ''The City Rises'' (1910) represents scenes of construction and manual labour with a huge, rearing red horse in the centre foreground, which workmen struggle to control. His ''States of Mind'', in three large panels, ''The Farewell'', ''Those who Go'', and ''Those Who Stay'', "made his first great statement of Futurist painting, bringing his interests in Bergson, Cubism and the individual's complex experience of the modern world together in what has been described as one of the 'minor masterpieces' of early twentieth century painting."〔Humphreys, R. ''Futurism'', Tate Gallery, 1999〕 The work attempts to convey feelings and sensations experienced in time, using new means of expression, including "lines of force", which were intended to convey the directional tendencies of objects through space, "simultaneity", which combined memories, present impressions and anticipation of future events, and "emotional ambience" in which the artist seeks by intuition to link sympathies between the exterior scene and interior emotion.〔 Boccioni's intentions in art were strongly influenced by the ideas of Bergson, including the idea of intuition, which Bergson defined as a simple, indivisible experience of sympathy through which one is moved into the inner being of an object to grasp what is unique and ineffable within it. The Futurists aimed through their art thus to enable the viewer to apprehend the inner being of what they depicted. Boccioni developed these ideas at length in his book, ''Pittura scultura Futuriste: Dinamismo plastico'' (''Futurist Painting Sculpture: Plastic Dynamism'') (1914).〔For detailed discussions of Boccioni's debt to Bergson, see Petrie, Brian, "Boccioni and Bergson", ''The Burlington Magazine'', Vol. 116, No.852, March 1974, pp.140-147, and Antliff, Mark "The Fourth Dimension and Futurism: A Politicized Space", ''The Art Bulletin'', December 2000, pp.720-733.〕 Balla's ''Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash'' (1912) exemplifies the Futurists' insistence that the perceived world is in constant movement. The painting depicts a dog whose legs, tail and leash —and the feet of the woman walking it —have been multiplied to a blur of movement. It illustrates the precepts of the ''Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting'' that, "On account of the persistency of an image upon the retina, moving objects constantly multiply themselves; their form changes like rapid vibrations, in their mad career. Thus a running horse has not four legs, but twenty, and their movements are triangular."〔 His ''Rhythm of the Bow'' (1912) similarly depicts the movements of a violinist's hand and instrument, rendered in rapid strokes within a triangular frame. The adoption of Cubism determined the style of much subsequent Futurist painting, which Boccioni and Severini in particular continued to render in the broken colors and short brush-strokes of divisionism. But Futurist painting differed in both subject matter and treatment from the quiet and static Cubism of Picasso, Braque and Gris. Although there were Futurist portraits (e.g. Carrà's ''Woman with Absinthe'' (1911), Severini's ''Self-Portrait'' (1912), and Boccioni's ''Matter'' (1912)), it was the urban scene and vehicles in motion that typified Futurist painting—e.g. Boccioni's ''The Street Enters the House'' (1911), Severini's ''Dynamic Hieroglyph of the Bal Tabarin'' (1912), and Russolo's ''Automobile at Speed'' (1913) In 1912 and 1913, Boccioni turned to sculpture to translate into three dimensions his Futurist ideas. In ''Unique Forms of Continuity in Space'' (1913) he attempted to realise the relationship between the object and its environment, which was central to his theory of "dynamism". The sculpture represents a striding figure, cast in bronze posthumously and exhibited in the Tate Modern. (It now appears on the national side of Italian 20 eurocent coins). He explored the theme further in ''Synthesis of Human Dynamism'' (1912), ''Speeding Muscles'' (1913) and ''Spiral Expansion of Speeding Muscles'' (1913). His ideas on sculpture were published in the ''Technical Manifesto of Futurist Sculpture'' In 1915 Balla also turned to sculpture making abstract "reconstructions", which were created out of various materials, were apparently moveable and even made noises. He said that, after making twenty pictures in which he had studied the velocity of automobiles, he understood that "the single plane of the canvas did not permit the suggestion of the dynamic volume of speed in depth ... I felt the need to construct the first dynamic plastic complex with iron wires, cardboard planes, cloth and tissue paper, etc."〔Martin, Marianne W. ''Futurist Art and Theory'', Hacker Art Books, New York, 1978〕 In 1914, personal quarrels and artistic differences between the Milan group, around Marinetti, Boccioni, and Balla, and the Florence group, around Carrà, Ardengo Soffici (1879–1964) and Giovanni Papini (1881–1956), created a rift in Italian Futurism. The Florence group resented the dominance of Marinetti and Boccioni, whom they accused of trying to establish "an immobile church with an infallible creed", and each group dismissed the other as ''passéiste''. Futurism had from the outset admired violence and was intensely patriotic. The ''Futurist Manifesto'' had declared, "We will glorify war —the world's only hygiene —militarism, patriotism, the destructive gesture of freedom-bringers, beautiful ideas worth dying for, and scorn for woman."〔 Although it owed much of its character and some of its ideas to radical political movements, it was not much involved in politics until the autumn of 1913.〔 Then, fearing the re-election of Giolitti, Marinetti published a political manifesto. In 1914 the Futurists began to campaign actively against the Austro-Hungarian empire, which still controlled some Italian territories, and Italian neutrality between the major powers. In September, Boccioni, seated in the balcony of the Teatro dal Verme in Milan, tore up an Austrian flag and threw it into the audience, while Marinetti waved an Italian flag. When Italy entered the First World War in 1915, many Futurists enlisted.〔Adler, Jerry, "Back to the Future", The New Yorker, September 6, 2004, p.103〕 The experience of the war marked several Futurists, particularly Marinetti, who fought in the mountains of Trentino at the border of Italy and Austria-Hungary, actively engaging in propaganda. The combat experience also influenced Futurist music. The outbreak of war disguised the fact that Italian Futurism had come to an end. The Florence group had formally acknowledged their withdrawal from the movement by the end of 1914. Boccioni produced only one war picture and was killed in 1916. Severini painted some significant war pictures in 1915 (e.g. ''War'', ''Armored Train'', and ''Red Cross Train''), but in Paris turned towards Cubism and post-war was associated with the Return to Order. After the war, Marinetti revived the movement. This revival was called ''il secondo Futurismo'' (Second Futurism) by writers in the 1960s. The art historian Giovanni Lista has classified Futurism by decades: "Plastic Dynamism" for the first decade, "Mechanical Art" for the 1920s, "Aeroaesthetics" for the 1930s. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「futurism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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