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Gastroenterology (MeSH heading)〔(nlm.nih.gov )〕 is the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders. Diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract, which include the organs from mouth to anus, along the alimentary canal, are the focus of this speciality. Physicians practicing in this field are called gastroenterologists. They have usually completed about eight years of pre-medical and medical education, a year-long internship (if this is not a part of the residency), three years of an internal medicine residency, and two to three years in the gastroenterology fellowship. Some gastroenterology trainees will complete a "fourth-year" (although this is often their seventh year of graduate medical education) in transplant hepatology, advanced endoscopy, inflammatory bowel disease, motility or other topics. Hepatology, or hepatobiliary medicine, encompasses the study of the liver, pancreas, and biliary tree, and is traditionally considered a sub-specialty. ==History== Citing from Egyptian papyri, Nunn identified significant knowledge of gastrointestinal diseases among practising physicians during the periods of the pharaohs. Irynakhty, of the tenth dynasty, c. 2125 B.C., was a court physician specialising in gastroenterology, sleeping, and proctology.〔Nunn JF. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. 2002. ISBN 0-8061-3504-2.〕 Among ancient Greeks, Hippocrates attributed digestion to concoction. Galen's concept of the stomach having four ''faculties'' was widely accepted up to modernity in the seventeenth century. Eighteenth century: * Italian Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–99) was among early physicians to disregard Galen's theories, and in 1780 he gave experimental proof on the action of gastric juice on foodstuffs. * In 1767, German Johann von Zimmermann wrote an important work on dysentery. * In 1777, Maximilian Stoll of Vienna described cancer of the gallbladder.〔Edgardo Rivera, MD James L. Abbruzzese, MD; Pancreatic, Hepatic, and Biliary Carcinomas, MEDICAL ONCOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ()〕〔DeStoll M: Rationis Mendendi, in Nosocomio Practico vendobonensi. Part 1 LugduniBatavarum, Haak et Socios et A et J Honkoop 1788, OCLC: 23625746〕 Nineteenth century: * In 1805, Philipp Bozzini made the first attempt to observe inside the living human body using a tube he named ''Lichtleiter'' (light-guiding instrument) to examine the urinary tract, the rectum, and the pharynx. This is the earliest description of endoscopy.〔(The Origin of Endoscopes, Olympus history )〕 * Charles Emile Troisier described enlargement of lymph nodes in abdominal cancer.〔Anton Sebastian,A Dictionary of the History of Medicine, ISBN 1-85070-021-4〕 * In 1823, William Prout discovered that stomach juices contain hydrochloric acid.〔''Prout, W.'' On the nature of the acid and saline matters usually existing in the stomachs of animals. – Philos. Transactions, 1824, 1, 45.〕 * In 1868, Adolf Kussmaul, a well-known German physician, developed the gastroscope. He perfected the technique on a sword swallower. * In 1871, at the society of physicians in Vienna, Carl Stoerk demonstrated an esophagoscope made of two telescopic metal tubes, initially devised by Waldenburg in 1870. * In 1876, Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer described the properties of some liver cells now called Kupffer cell. * In 1883, Hugo Kronecker and Samuel James Meltzer studied oesophageal manometry in humans. Twentieth century: * In 1915, Jesse McClendon tested acidity of human stomach ''in situ''.〔McClendon J. F. New hydrogen electrodes and rapid methods of determining hydrogen ion concentrations. – Amer. J. Physoil., 1915, 38, 2, 180.〕 * In 1921-22, Walter Alvarez did the first electrogastrography research.〔Alvarez W. C. The electrogastrogram and what it shows. JAMA, 78(15):1116-18, 1922.〕 * Rudolph Schindler described many important diseases involving the human digestive system during World War I in his illustrated textbook and is portrayed by some as the "father of gastroscopy". He and Georg Wolf developed a semiflexible gastroscope in 1932. * In 1932, Burrill Bernard Crohn described Crohn's disease. * In 1957, Basil Hirschowitz introduced the first prototype of a fibreoptic gastroscope. Twenty-first century: * In 2005, Barry Marshall and Robin Warren of Australia were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of ''Helicobacter pylori'' (1982/1983) and its role in peptic ulcer disease. James Leavitt assisted in their research, but the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously so he was not included in the award. The word ''gastroenterology'' is a combination of three Ancient Greek words: γαστήρ ''gaster'' (gen.: ''gastros'') "stomach", ἔντερον ''enteron'' "intestine", and λόγος ''logos'' "reason". 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「gastroenterology」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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