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The Gulag () was the government agency that administered the main Soviet forced labor camp systems during the Stalin era, from the 1930s until the 1950s. The first such camps were created in 1918 and the term is widely used to describe any forced labor camp in the USSR.〔Other Soviet penal labor systems not formally included in GULag were: (a) camps for the prisoners of war captured by the Soviet Union, administered by GUPVI (b) filtration camps created during World War II for temporary detention of Soviet Ostarbeiters and prisoners of war while they were being screened by the security organs in order to "filter out" the black sheep, (c) "special settlements" for internal exiles including "kulaks" and deported ethnic minorities, such as Volga Germans, Poles, Balts, Caucasians, Crimean Tartars, and others. During certain periods of Soviet history, each of these camp systems held millions of people. Many hundreds of thousand were also sentenced to forced labor without imprisonment at their normal place of work. (Applebaum, pages 579-580)〕 While the camps housed a wide range of convicts, from petty criminals to political prisoners, large numbers were convicted by simplified procedures, such as NKVD troikas and other instruments of extrajudicial punishment (the NKVD was the Soviet secret police). The Gulag is recognized as a major instrument of political repression in the Soviet Union, based on Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code). The term is also sometimes used to describe the camps themselves, particularly in the West. "GULAG" was the acronym for (''Glavnoye upravleniye lagerey''), the "Main Camp Administration". It was the short form of the official name ''Гла́вное управле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х лагере́й и коло́ний'' (''Glavnoye upravleniye ispravityelno-trudovykh lagerey i koloniy''), the "Main Administration of Corrective Labor Camps and Labor Settlements". It was administered first by the GPU, later by the NKVD and in the final years by the MVD, the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The first corrective labour camps after the revolution were established in 1918 (Solovki) and legalized by a decree "On creation of the forced-labor camps" on 15 April 1919. The internment system grew rapidly, reaching population of 100,000 in the 1920s and from the very beginning it had a very high mortality rate. Forced labor camps continued to function outside of the agency until late 80s (Perm-36 closed in 1988). A number of Soviet dissidents described the continuation of the Gulag after it was officially closed: Anatoli Marchenko (who actually died in a camp in 1986), Vladimir Bukovsky, Yuri Orlov, Nathan Shcharansky, all of them released from the Gulag and given permission to emigrate in the West, after years of international pressure on Soviet authorities. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who spent eight years of Gulag incarceration, winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize in Literature, gave the term its international repute with the publication of ''The Gulag Archipelago'' in 1973. The author likened the scattered camps to "a chain of islands" and as an eyewitness described the Gulag as a system where people were worked to death.〔Applebaum, Anne (2003) ''Gulag: A History.'' Doubleday. ISBN 0-7679-0056-1〕 Some scholars support this view,〔Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev. ''A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia.'' Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-300-08760-8 (p. 15 )〕〔Steven Rosefielde. ''Red Holocaust.'' Routledge, 2009. ISBN 0-415-77757-7 pg. 247: ''"They served as killing fields during much of the Stalin period, and as a vast pool of cheap labor for state projects."''〕 though it is controversial, considering that with the obvious exception of the war years, a very large majority of people who entered the Gulag left alive.〔http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2011/mar/10/hitler-vs-stalin-who-killed-more/〕 In March 1940, there were 53 Gulag camp directorates (colloquially referred to as simply "camps") and 423 labor colonies in the USSR.〔Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review, Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct., 1993), pp. 1017–1049〕 Today's major industrial cities of the Russian Arctic, such as Norilsk, Vorkuta, and Magadan, were originally camps built by prisoners and run by ex-prisoners. == Brief history == About 14 million people were in the Gulag labor camps from 1929 to 1953 (the estimates for the period 1918–1929 are even more difficult to calculate). A further 6–7 million were deported and exiled to remote areas of the USSR, and 4–5 million passed through labor colonies, plus 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labor settlements'.〔Robert Conquest in ("Victims of Stalinism: A Comment." ) ''Europe-Asia Studies,'' Vol. 49, No. 7 (Nov., 1997), pp. 1317–1319 states: "We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4-5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labor settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures." There are reservations to be made. For example, we now learn that the Gulag reported totals were of capacity rather than actual counts,leading to an underestimate in 1946 of around 15%. Then as to the numbers 'freed': there is no reason to accept the category simply because the MVD so listed them, and, in fact, we are told of 1947 (when the anecdotal evidence is of almost no one released) that this category concealed deaths: 100000 in the first quarter of the year'〕 According with some estimates, the total population of the camps varied from 510,307 in 1934 to 1,727,970 in 1953.〔 According with other estimates, at the beginning of 1953 the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465,000 were political prisoners.〔"Repressions". Publicist.n1.by. Retrieved 2009-01-06.〕 The institutional analysis of the Soviet concentration system is complicated by the formal distinction between GULAG and GUPVI. GUPVI was the Main Administration for Affairs of Prisoners of War and Internees ((ロシア語:Главное управление по делам военнопленных и интернированных НКВД/МВД СССР, ГУПВИ), GUPVI), a department of NKVD (later MVD) in charge of handling of foreign civilian internees and POWs in the Soviet Union during and in the aftermath of World War II (1939–1953). (for GUPVI, see Main Administration for Affairs of Prisoners of War and Internees). In many ways the GUPVI system was similar to GULAG.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=H-Net Reviews )〕 Its major function was the organization of foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union. The top management of GUPVI came from GULAG system. The major noted distinction from GULAG was the absence of convicted criminals in the GUPVI camps. Otherwise the conditions in both camp systems were similar: hard labor, poor nutrition and living conditions, high mortality rate〔http://www.memo.ru/HISTORY/POLAcy/g_3.htm〕 For the Soviet political prisoners, like Solzhenitsyn, all foreign civilian detainees and foreign POWs were imprisoned in the GULAG; the surviving foreign civilians and POWs considered themselves as prisoners in the GULAG. According with the estimates, in total, during the whole period of the existence of GUPVI there were over 500 POW camps (within the Soviet Union and abroad), which imprisoned over 4,000,000 POW.〔MVD of Russia: An Encyclopedia (), 2002, ISBN 5-224-03722-0, p.541〕 According to a 1993 study of archival Soviet data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the Gulag from 1934–53 (there is no archival data for the period 1919–1934).〔 However, taking into account the likelihood of unreliable record keeping, and the fact that it was common practice to release prisoners who were either suffering from incurable diseases or near death,〔Michael Ellman. (Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments. ) ''Europe-Asia Studies'', Vol. 54, No. 7 (Nov., 2002), pp. 1151–1172〕〔Applebaum, Anne (2003) ''Gulag: A History.'' Doubleday. ISBN 0-7679-0056-1 pg 583: "both archives and memoirs indicate that it was common practice in many camps to release prisoners who were on the point of dying, thereby lowering camp death statistics."〕 non-state estimates of the actual Gulag death toll are usually higher. Some independent estimates are as low as 1.6 million deaths during the whole period from 1929 to 1953,〔Steven Rosefielde. ''Red Holocaust.'' Routledge, 2009. ISBN 0-415-77757-7 pg. 67 ''"...more complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537"''; pg 77: ''"The best archivally based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953." ''〕 while other estimates go beyond 10 million.〔Robert Conquest, Preface, ''The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition'', Oxford University Press, USA, 2007. p. xvi〕 Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time. Petty crimes and jokes about the Soviet government and officials were punishable by imprisonment.〔Uschan, M. ''Political Leaders''. Lucent Books. 2002.〕 About half of political prisoners in the Gulag camps were imprisoned without trial; official data suggest that there were over 2.6 million sentences to imprisonment on cases investigated by the secret police throughout 1921–53. The GULAG was reduced in size following Stalin’s death in 1953, in a period known as the Khrushchev Thaw. In 1960 the Ministerstvo Vnutrennikh Del (MVD) ceased to function as the Soviet-wide administration of the camps in favor of individual republic MVD branches. The centralized detention facilities temporarily ceased functioning.〔()〕〔(News Release: Forced labor camp artifacts from Soviet era on display at NWTC ) 〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「gulag」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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