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In societies that regard some races of people as dominant or superior and others as subordinate or inferior, hypodescent is the automatic assignment of children of a mixed union or mating between members of different socioeconomic groups or ethnic groups to the subordinate group.〔Kottak, Conrad Phillip. "Chapter 11: Ethnicity and Race." Mirror for Humanity a Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2009. 238. Print.〕 The opposite practice is hyperdescent, in which children are assigned to the race that is considered dominant or superior. Parallel practices include patrilineality, matrilineality and cognatic descent, which assign race according to the father, mother, or some combination, without regard to the race of the other parent. These systems may not be mutually exclusive with hypo- and hyper-descent, since either parent (or both) might be of mixed race. Attempts to limit (or eliminate) mixed-race populations by legal means are detailed in Anti-miscegenation laws and Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States == History == While customs, practices and systems of belief emphasising the value of purity of descent are arguably as old as mankind few societies systematically codified them, or legally enforced their outcome, the effect being more at the level of communal behaviour. Such was the case in classical Greece - which made clear distinctions between Greeks and Barbarians - as distinct from the Roman Republic which despite being expansionist, militarily and culturally aggressive actively encouraged the Romanisation of client kingdoms, which included making their elite citizens of Rome as reward and as exemplars. Hypo/hyperdescent in 19th-20th Century Europe and America Joseph Arthur, Comte de Gobineau (14 July 1816 – 13 October 1882) a French aristocrat, novelist and man of letters famous for developing the theory of the Aryan master race is credited as being the father of modern racial demography. His work ''An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races'' proposed the superiority the Aryan race and lobbied for cultural and racial purity. Together with Houston Stewart Chamberlain (9 September 1855 – 9 January 1927), an English-born German author whose works presaged ''völkisch'' antisemitism, is considered an early exponent of scientific racism. Gobineau's contemporary Madison Grant (November 19, 1865 – May 30, 1937) published ''The Passing of the Great Race'' in 1916. In this work he lamented the perceived decline in 'racial hygiene' caused by increasing levels of immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe (as opposed to Western and Northern Europe) citing the 'racial history' of Europe as evidence and argument that race is the basis of civilization. Seizing on these and other, similar works Adolf Hitler laid out plans for the transformation of Germany into a race-based society driven by his (self-evident) belief in an international conspiracy for world domination in which the Jews were mortal enemies of the German people. One instrument was the concept of a ''Volksgemeinschaft'' ("people's community") aimed at uniting all Germans while excluding all those identified as aliens. At a Nazi Party Rally in Nuremberg leading Nazi physician Gerhard Wagner announced that the government would soon introduce a "law for the protection of German blood". The next day, Hitler summoned officials and directed to prepare a draft law forbidding sexual relations or marriages between Jews and non-Jews. The Nuremberg Laws passed in 15 September 1935 were ''The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour'' that prohibited marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and forbade the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households, and the ''Reich Citizenship Law'' that declared only those of German or related blood could be considered citizens, all others classified 'state subjects' who were bereft of the rights accorded Germans under the Reich. This race-based qualification was codified and quantified by tables of descent that assigned specific terminology derived by calculation of ancestry 'by eighths'. These categories decided the rights - or lack thereof - which any person would be permitted under Nazi rule. In the following years an additional 13 supplementary laws were promulgated that further marginalised the Jewish community in Nazi Germany and effectively removed all rights from those considered racially inferior, up to and including denial of the right to life. Hypo/hyperdescent in Colonial Era America The American practice of applying a rule of hypodescent began during colonial times when indentured servants and transported convicts working at the direction of the colonists and colonial authorities were joined by Africans taken from Spanish slave ships in 1619, bus as the freed captives were Christians these individuals were classified as indentured workers. It was not until 1705 that Virginia formally enacted a 'slave code' but evidence from the 1650s that some Virginia Negroes were serving life-long terms and ten years later the Assembly stated that “any English servant that shall run away in company with any Negroes who are incapable of making satisfaction by addition of time shall serve for the time of the said Negroes absence” indicating Negroes could not 'make satisfaction' by serving longer if recaptured. While this device gave legal status to the practice of lifetime enslavement of persons of African descent and in subsequent statutes the conditions of a lifetime of servitude were delineated, a mere decade later Elizabeth Key fought and won the first freedom suit in Virginia, arguing her English father had acknowledged her as his daughter, had her baptised, established a legal guardian to care for her after his death and arranged an indenture for her as a girl specifically in order to protect her rights as a mixed-race woman. However, following her victory Virginia established the principle of ''partus sequitur ventrem'' (the ancient Roman dictum that all children born to slave mothers were slaves regardless of paternity) in subsequent legislation, doing so in direct contradiction to the English common law that had up to that point - at least in theory - underpinned the passing legislature's legitimacy. While the history of slavery during the intervening two and a half centuries is a fascinating field of study it is beyond the scope of this article, but not so the development of strict legal definitions with application to race theory after the end of slavery Hypo/hyperdescent in 20th Century America In the early years of the 20th century Democrats regained power in southern states and used their political supremacy to pass disfranchising legislation, constitutional amendments and the so-called Jim Crow laws, by which race-based social practices including segregation was legally enforced. States enacted laws classifying persons as black based on any traceable evidence (or perception of any African ancestry). For example in 1822, in Virginia a person with one quarter African ancestry (equivalent to one grandparent) was considered legally white while under the same state's Racial Integrity Act of 1924 the 'One-drop' rule defined as black a person with ''any'' known African ancestry regardless of any number of intervening generations. The same Act established a binary classification system for vital records, classifying persons as 'white' or 'black', which was effectively a 'catch all' clause: it was this category into which Native Americans were placed, a clear indication of the then-prevalent local attitude to ''all'' races other than white. The Southern author Mary Chesnut wrote in her famous ''A Diary from Dixie'' of the Civil War-era about the hypocrisy of a woman's recognizing white men's children among the slaves in every household but her own. Fanny Kemble, the British actress who married an American slaveholder, wrote about her observations of slavery as well, including the way white men used slave women and left their mixed-race children enslaved. Sometimes the white fathers freed the children and/or their mothers, or provided education or apprenticeship, or settled property on them in a significant transfer of social capital. Notable antebellum examples were the fathers of Charles Henry Langston and John Mercer Langston and the father of the Healy family of Georgia. Other mixed-race children were left enslaved; some were sold away by their fathers.〔Christine B. Hickman, "The Devil and the One-Drop Rule: Racial Categories, African Americans, and the U.S. Census", ''Michigan Law Review'', Vol: 95, March, 1997, 1175-1176.〕 Research by historians and genealogists has shown that unlike the above examples, most African Americans free in Virginia and nearby states in the colonial period were descended from relationships between white women, indentured servant or free, and African or African-American men, indentured servant, free or slave. This reflected the fluid nature of relationships among the working classes before slave rules were made strict. Because the mothers were white, the children were free born. By the turn of the nineteenth century, many free African Americans, along with European-American neighbors, migrated to frontier areas of Virginia, North Carolina, and then further west. Such families sometimes settled in insular groups and were the origin of some isolated settlements, which have long claimed or were said to be of American Indian or Portuguese ancestry.〔Paul Heinegg, ''(Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware )'', accessed 15 Feb 2008〕 In its most extreme form in the United States, hypodescent was the basis of the "one drop rule", meaning that if an individual had any black ancestry, the person was classified as black. Laws were passed in southern states and others long after the end of slavery to define white and black, under associated laws for segregation: Tennessee adopted such a "one-drop" statute in 1910; Louisiana; Texas; Arkansas in 1911; Mississippi in 1917; North Carolina in 1923; Virginia in 1924; Alabama and Georgia in 1927; and Oklahoma in 1931. During this same period, Florida, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Utah retained their old "blood fraction" statutes ''de jure'', but amended these fractions (one-sixteenth, one-thirtysecond) to be equivalent to one-drop ''de facto.''〔Pauli Murray, ed. ''States’ Laws on Race and Color'' (Athens, 1997), 428, 173, 443, 37, 237, 330, 463, 22, 39, 358, 77, 150, 164, 207, 254, 263, 459.〕 By 1924 many "white" people in Virginia would have had some African and/or Native American ancestry but at the same time that Virginia was trying to harden racial caste, African Americans were organizing to overturn segregation and regain civil rights, that had been lost to Jim Crow laws and disfranchisement of the majority of the black community. Established in 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) took the lead in filing lawsuits to overturn such provisions. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「hypodescent」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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