|
An insurgency is a rebellion against authority (for example, an authority recognized as such by the United Nations) when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents.〔Oxford English Dictionary second edition 1989 "insurgent B. n. One who rises in revolt against constituted authority; a rebel who is not recognized as a belligerent."〕 An insurgency can be fought via counter-insurgency warfare, and may also be opposed by measures to protect the population, and by political and economic actions of various kinds aimed at undermining the insurgents' claims against the incumbent regime.〔These points are emphasized in many works on insurgency, including Peter Paret, ''French Revolutionary Warfare from Indochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a Political and Military Doctrine'', Pall Mall Press, London, 1964.〕 The nature of insurgencies is an ambiguous concept. Not all rebellions are insurgencies. There have been many cases of non-violent rebellions, using civil resistance, as in the People Power Revolution in the Philippines in the 1980s that ousted President Marcos and the Egyptian Revolution of 2011.〔Roberts, Adam and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), ''Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present'', Oxford University Press, 2009. See (). Includes chapters by specialists on the various movements.〕 Where a revolt takes the form of armed rebellion, it may not be viewed as an insurgency if a state of belligerency exists between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. For example, during the American Civil War, the Confederate States of America was not recognized as a sovereign state, but it was recognized as a belligerent power, and thus Confederate warships were given the same rights as United States warships in foreign ports.〔Hall, Kermit L. ''The Oxford Guide to United States Supreme Court Decisions'', Oxford University Press US, 2001 ISBN 0-19-513924-0, ISBN 978-0-19-513924-2 (p. 246 ) "In supporting Lincoln on this issue, the Supreme Court upheld his theory of the Civil War as an insurrection against the United States government that could be suppressed according to the rules of war. In this way the United States was able to fight the war as if it were an international war, without actually having to recognize the ''de jure'' existence of the Confederate government."〕〔Staff. (Bureau of Public Affairs: Office of the Historian -> Timeline of U.S. Diplomatic History -> 1861-1865:The Blockade of Confederate Ports, 1861-1865 ), U.S. State Department. "Following the U.S. announcement of its intention to establish an official blockade of Confederate ports, foreign governments began to recognize the Confederacy as a belligerent in the Civil War. Great Britain granted belligerent status on May 13, 1861, Spain on June 17, and Brazil on August 1. Other foreign governments issued statements of neutrality."〕〔Goldstein, Erik; McKercher, B. J. C. ''Power and stability: British foreign policy, 1865-1965'', Routledge, 2003 ISBN 0-7146-8442-2, ISBN 978-0-7146-8442-0. (p. 63 )〕 When insurgency is used to describe a movement's unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, its use is neutral. However, when it is used by a state or another authority under threat, "insurgency" often also carries an implication that the rebels' cause is illegitimate, whereas those rising up will see the authority itself as being illegitimate. Criticisms of widely held ideas and actions about insurgency started to occur in works of the 1960s;〔See, for example, Franklin Mark Osanka, ed., ''Modern Guerrilha Warfare'' (New York: Free Press, 1962): Peter Paret and John W. Shy, ''Guerrilhas in the 1960's'' (New York: Praeger, 1962); Harry Eckstein, ed., ''Internal War: Problem and Approaches'' (New York: Free Press, 1964); and Henry Bienen, ''Violence and Social Change'' (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1968).〕 they are still common in recent studies.〔Examples are Douglas Blaufarb, ''The Counter-Insurgency Era: U.S. Doctrine and Performance'' (New York: Free Press, 1977), and D. Michael Shafer, ''Deadly Paradigmes: The Failure of U.S. Counterinsurgency Policy'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).〕 Sometimes there may be one or more simultaneous insurgencies (multipolar) occurring in a country. The Iraq insurgency is one example of a recognized government versus multiple groups of insurgents. Other historic insurgencies, such as the Russian Civil War, have been multipolar rather than a straightforward model made up of two sides. During the Angolan Civil War there were two main sides: MPLA and UNITA. At the same time, there was another separatist movement for the independence of the Cabinda region headed up by FLEC. Multipolarity extends the definition of insurgency to situations where there is no recognized authority, as in the Somali Civil War, especially the period from 1998 to 2006, where it broke into quasi-autonomous smaller states, fighting among one another in changing alliances. ==Definition== If there is a rebellion against the authority (for example the United Nations) and those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents then the rebellion is an insurgency.〔 However, not all rebellions are insurgencies, as a state of belligerency may exist between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. For example, during the American Civil War, the Confederate States of America was not recognized as a sovereign state, but it was recognized as a belligerent power, and thus Confederate warships were given the same rights as United States warships in foreign ports. When insurgency is used to describe a movement's unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, its use is neutral. However, when it is used by a state or another authority under threat, "insurgency" often also carries an implication that the rebels cause is illegitimate, whereas those rising up will see the authority itself as being illegitimate. The use of the term insurgency does recognize the political motivation of those who participate in an insurgency, while the term brigandry implies no political motivation. If an uprising has little support (for example those who continue to resist towards the end of an armed conflict when most of their allies have surrendered) then such a resistance may be described as brigandry and those who participate as brigands.〔Francis Lieber, Richard Shelly Hartigan ''Lieber's Code and the Law of War'', Transaction Publishers, 1983 ISBN 0-913750-25-5, ISBN 978-0-913750-25-4. (p. 95 )〕〔Oxford English Dictionary second edition 1989 brigandry "1980 Guardian Weekly 28 Dec. 14/2 Today the rebels wound, mutilate, and kill civilians: where do you draw the fine line between subversion and brigandry?"〕 The distinction on whether an uprising is an insurgency or a belligerency has not been as clearly codified as many other areas covered by the internationally accepted laws of war for two reasons. The first is that international law traditionally does not encroach on matters that are solely the internal affairs of a sovereign state (although recent developments such as the responsibility to protect is starting to undermine this traditional approach). The second is because at the Hague Conference of 1899 there was disagreement between the Great Powers who considered ''francs-tireurs'' to be unlawful combatants subject to execution on capture and smaller states who maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants. The dispute resulted in a compromise wording being included in the Hague Conventions known as the Martens Clause after the diplomat who drafted the clause.〔Ticehurst, Rupert. ''(The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict )'' 30 April 1997, International Review of the Red Cross no 317, p.125-134 . Ticehurst in footnote 1 cites The life and works of Martens are detailed by V. Pustogarov, "Fyodor Fyodorovich Martens (1845-1909) — A Humanist of Modern Times", ''International Review of the Red Cross'' (IRRC), No. 312, May–June 1996, pp. 300-314. Also Ticehurst in his footnote 2 cites F. Kalshoven, ''Constraints on the Waging of War'', Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1987, p. 14.〕 The Third Geneva Convention, as well as the other Geneva Conventions, are oriented to conflict involving nation-states, and only loosely address irregular forces: The United States Department of Defense (DOD) defines it as "An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a constituted government through use of subversion and armed conflict." The United States counterinsurgency Field Manual,〔 While military manuals rarely show individual authors, David Petraeus is widely described as establishing many of this volume's concepts.〕 proposes a structure that includes both ''insurgency'' and ''counterinsurgency'' () (''italics'' in original): This definition does not consider the morality of the conflict, or the different viewpoints of the government and the insurgents. It is focused more on the operational aspects of the types of actions taken by the insurgents and the counter-insurgents. The French expert on Indochina and Vietnam, Bernard Fall, who wrote ''Street Without Joy'', said that "revolutionary warfare" (guerrilla warfare plus political action) might be a more accurate term to describe small wars such as insurgencies. Insurgency has been used for years in professional military literature. Under the British, the situation in Malaya (now Malaysia) was often called the "Malayan insurgency" or "the Troubles" in Northern Ireland. Insurgencies have existed in many countries and regions, including the Philippines, Indonesia, Afghanistan, Chechnya, Kashmir, Northeast India, Yemen, Djibouti, Colombia, Sri Lanka, and Democratic Republic of the Congo, the American colonies of Great Britain, and the Confederate States of America. Each had different specifics but share the property of an attempt to disrupt the central government by means considered illegal by that government. North points out, however, that insurgents today need not be part of a highly organized movement: 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「insurgency」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|