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The German term (, literally "culture struggle") refers to power struggles between emerging constitutional and democratic nation states and the Roman Catholic Church over the place and role of religion in modern polity, usually in connection with secularization campaigns. In the ancien régime, states were confessional, religion governed private and public life and the Catholic Church had been closely associated with reactionary governments and ideological conservatism,〔Grew, Raymond in: "Liberty and the Catholic Church in 19th. century Europe", Freedom and Religion in the 19th. Century, edited by Richard Helmstadter, Stanford University Press, 1997, ISBN 9780804730877, p. 201〕 thus, "the struggle against the ancien régime, its remnants, or its restoration was necessarily a struggle against the church" and such conflicts were a central theme of Western European history from the mid-19th. century until 1914.〔Olsen, Glenn in: The Turn to Transcendence. The Role of Religion in the 21st. Century, The Catholic University of America Press, 2010, ISBN 9780813217406, p. 81〕〔Berend, Ivan in: An Economic History of 19th-century Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-03070-1, p. 93-94〕 In the historical sense, Kulturkampf refers to such power struggles and legislative campaigns in several countries, e g. in Switzerland (see :de:Kulturkampf in der Schweiz), which took a leading role in the 1840s (see: Sonderbund War), in Germany beginning around 1860 and especially their culmination between 1871 and 1876, in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Britain,〔Josef L. Altholz, "The Vatican Decrees Controversy, 1874-1875." ''Catholic Historical Review'' (1972): 593-605. (in JSTOR )〕 Spain, Italy, Austria-Hungary (see :de:Maigesetze (Österreich-Ungarn)), Hungary (1890-1895)〔Ramet, Sabrina in: Obstat, Nihil. Religion, Politics, and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia, Duke University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-8223-2070-8, p 107〕 as well as in the United States and Latin America, e. g. Mexico 〔Borst, William in: "The Mexican Kulturkampf. The Christeros and the Crusade for the greater Glory of God", ''Mindszenty Report'' 54#8 August 2012:〕 〔Morton, Adam in: ''Revolution and State in Modern Mexico'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), p. 50, ISBN 9780742554900〕 or Brasil. Because of its intensity and anti-Polish aspect, the German Kulturkampf is most widely known. With this meaning the term Kulturkampf entered many languages, e. g.: French: Le Kulturkampf, Spanish: El Kulturkampf, Italian: Il Kulturkampf. 〔Dittrich, Lisa in: Antiklerikalismuns in Europa: Öffentlichkeit und Säkularisierung in Frankreich, Spanien und Deutschland (1848-1914), Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1914, ISBN 9783525310236〕 It first appeared 1840 in an anonymus review of a publication by Swiss-German liberal Ludwig Snell on "The Importance ot the Struggle of liberal Catholic Switzerland with the Roman Curia". But it only gained wider currency after liberal member of the Prussian parliament, Rudolph Virchow, used it in 1873. 〔Ruppert, Stefan in: Kirchenkampf und Kulturkampf: Historische Legitimation, politische Mitwirkung und wissenschaftliche Begleitung durch die Schule Emil Ludwig Richter, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, 2002, ISBN 978-3-16-147868-0, p. 1-2〕 〔Borutta, Manuel in: Antikatholizismus. Deutschland und Italien im Zeitalter der europäischen Kulturkämpfe, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 2011, p. 11, ISBN 978-3-525-36849-7〕 In contemporary socio-political discussion, the term Kulturkampf (see also: culture war) is often used to describe any conflict between secular and religious authorities or deeply opposing values, beliefs between sizable factions within a nation, community, or other group.〔http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/kulturkampf〕 ==Background== Under the influence of ascending new philosophies and ideologies such as the enlightenment, humanism, realism, positivism, materialism, nationalism, secularism and liberalism, the role of religion in society and the relationship between society and church underwent profound changes in the 18th and 19th centuries. Many countries endeavoured to strip the church of worldly powers, reduce the duties of the church to spiritual affairs by secularising the public sphere and by separation of church and state and to assert the supremacy of the state, especially in education.〔Christopher Clark, ''Iron Kingdom'' (2006) pp 412-19〕 Róisín Healy argues that across Europe, the Kulturkampf operated mainly on state-level and was found "especially in strongholds of liberalism, anti-clericalism, and anti-Catholicism."〔http://Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (German Federal Agency for Civic Education) in: www.bpb.de/nachschlagen/lexika/das-junge-politik-lexikon/161673/saekularisierung〕 In the 1850s and 1860s, there existed an extensive and entrenched current of anti-Jesuit paranoia, anti-Catholicism, anti-monasticism and anti-clericalism.〔Michael B. Gross, (''The War Against Catholicism'' ), (Univ. of Michigan Press 2004) p. 11,〕 The Catholic Church resisted this development which it portrayed as an attack on religion and sought to maintain and even strengthen its strong role in state and society.〔Nicholas Atkin and Frank Tallett, ''Priests, Prelates and People: A History of European Catholicism since 1750'' (Oxford UP, 2003) pp 128, 193〕 With the growing influence of enlightenment and after having lost much of its wealth, power and influence in the mediatisation and secularization of the early 19th century the church had been in a state of decline.〔Franz, Georg in: Kulturkampf. Staat und katholische Kirche in Mitteleuropa von der Säkularisation bis zum Abschluss des preußischen Kulturkampfes, Munich 1954, ASIN: B0027NO7I4 , p. 16〕〔Robbins, Keith in: The Dynamics of Political Reform in Northern Europe 1780-1920, Political and Legal Perspectives, Leuven University Press, ISBN 9789058678256, p.154〕 The papacy at this time was at a weak point in its history, having just lost all its territories to Italy, with the pope a "prisoner" in the Vatican. The church strove to revert its waning influence and to keep sway in such matters as e. g. marriage, family and education and initiated a Catholic revival by founding associations, papers, schools, social establishments or new orders and encouraging religious practices such as pilgrimages, mass assemblies, the devotion of Virgin Mary or the sacred heart of Jesus and the veneration of relics;〔Knight, Frances in : History of the Christian Church, Vol. 6: The Church in the 19th. Century, I.B.Tauris, London, 2008, ISBN 9781850438991〕 the pope himself became an object of devotion.〔Dittrich, Lisa in: Antiklerikalismuns in Europa: Öffentlichkeit und Säkularisierung in Frankreich, Spanien und Deutschland (1848-1914), Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1914, ISBN 9783525310236, p. 58〕 Apart from the extraordinary proliferation of religious orders, the 19th. century also witnessed the rise of countless Catholic associations and organisations, especially in Germany and in France.〔Dittrich, Lisa in: Antiklerikalismuns in Europa: Öffentlichkeit und Säkularisierung in Frankreich, Spanien und Deutschland (1848-1914), Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1914, ISBN 9783525310236, p. 55〕 Catholic propaganda including the interpretation of daily events was spread through local and national Catholic newspapers prominent in all western European nations as well as through organized missions and groups dedicated to pious literature.〔Ruppert, Stefan in: Kirchenkampf und Kulturkampf: Historische Legitimation, politische Mitwirkung und wissenschaftliche Begleitung durch die Schule Emil Ludwig Richter, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, 2002, ISBN 978-3-16-147868-0, p.6-8〕 In the years leading up to the Kulturkampf, under the leadership of pope Pius IX, the Catholic Church promulgated a series of contentious dogmas and encyclicals. In *1854, it proclaimed Maria’s immaculate conception. *1862, in the encyclical Mirari vos, Pius IX condemned liberalism, free press and free thought; in *1864, the Vatican published the encyclical Quanta cura and Syllabus of Errors; in *1869, the pope forbade Catholics from participating in republican elections in the decree Non Expedit and in *1870, the Vatican Council declared the dogma of Papal infallibility. With its "syllabus of errors" of 1864, the Catholic Church launched an assault on the new ideologies condemning 80 philosophical and political statements, mainly the foundations of the modern nation state, as false. It outright rejected such concepts as freedom of religion, free thought, separation of church and state, civil marriage, sovereignty of the people, democracy, liberalism, socialism and reason as the sole base of human action and in general condemned the idea of conciliation with progress. The announcements included an index of forbidden books.〔Nicholas Atkin, and Frank Tallett. ''Priests, Prelates and People: A History of European Catholicism, 1750 to the Present'' (2003). pp 104-6〕 A profound change was the gradual reorganization of the Catholic Church and its expansive use of the media. The popes worked to increase their control of the Church. Heavily criticized by European governments, it was centralized and streamlined with a strict hierarchy, the bishops sought direction from the Vatican and the needs and views of the international church were given priority over the local ones. Opponents of the new hierarchical church organization pejoratively called it ultramontanism.〔Healy, Roisin in: The Jesuit Spectre in Imperial Germany, Brill Academic Publishers, Boston, 2003, ISBN 0391041940, p. 42〕 〔Grew, Raymond in: "Liberty and the Catholic Church in 19th. century Europe", Freedom and Religion in the 19th. Century, edited by Richard Helmstadter, Stanford University Press, 1997, ISBN 9780804730877, p. 198-200〕 In view of the church’s opposition to enlightenment, liberal reforms and the revolutions of the 18th/19th centuries, these dogmas and the church’s expressed insistence on papal primacy angered the liberal-minded all across Europe, even among some Catholics, adding fuel to the heated debates.〔〔Dittrich, Lisa in: Antiklerikalismuns in Europa: Öffentlichkeit und Säkularisierung in Frankreich, Spanien und Deutschland (1848-1914), Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1914, ISBN 9783525310236, p. 182〕 The dogmas represented a threat to the secularized state as they reaffirmend that the fundamental allegiance of Catholics was not to their nation-state, but to the Gospel and the Church and that the pope’s teaching was absolutely authoritative and binding on all the faithful. Secular politicians even wondered whether "Catholicism and allegiance to the modern liberal state were not mutually exclusive". Britisch Prime Minister Gladstone wrote in 1874 that the teaching on papal infallibility compromised the allegiance of faithful English Catholics. For European liberalism, the dogmas were a declaration of war against the modern state, science and spiritual freedom.〔Bucheim, Karl in: Geschichte der christlichen Parteien in Deutschland. Kösel, Munich, 1953, ASIN B0000BGX87, p. 197〕〔http://www.unamsanctamcatholicam.com/history/79-history/394-kulturkampf.html〕 The pope’s handling of dissent of the dogmas, e. g. by excommunication of critics or demanding their removal from schools and universities, was considered as "epitome of papal authoritarianism".〔Healy, Roisin in: ''The Jesuit Spectre'' in Imperial Germany, Brill Academic Publishers, Boston, 2003, ISBN 0391041940, p. 55〕 In direct response to the Vatican’s announcements, Austria passed the so-called May-Laws for Cisleithania in 1868, restricting the Concordat of 1855, and then cancelled the concordat altogether in 1870. Saxony and Bavaria withheld approval to publish the papal infallibility; Hesse and Baden even denied any legal validity. France refused to publish the doctrines altogether; Spain forbade publication of Syllabus of Errors in 1864.〔Dittrich, Lisa in: Antiklerikalismuns in Europa: Öffentlichkeit und Säkularisierung in Frankreich, Spanien und Deutschland (1848-1914), Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1914, ISBN 9783525310236, p. 95〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「kulturkampf」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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