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Libertarianism ((ラテン語:liber), "free") is a political philosophy that upholds liberty as its principal objective. Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and freedom of choice, emphasizing political freedom, voluntary association, and the primacy of individual judgment. Libertarians generally share a skepticism of authority; however, they diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing political and economic systems. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private power, often calling to restrict or even to wholly dissolve coercive social institutions. Rather than embodying a singular, rigid systematic theory or ideology, libertarianism has been applied as an umbrella term to a wide range of sometimes discordant political ideas through modern history. Some libertarians advocate laissez-faire capitalism and strong private property rights, such as in land, infrastructure, and natural resources. Others, notably libertarian socialists,〔Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class." ''Social Philosophy and Policy''. 15:2 p. 310. "When I speak of 'libertarianism'... I mean all three of these very different movements. It might be protested that LibCap, LibSoc and LibPop are too different from one another to be treated as aspects of a single point of view. But they do share a common—or at least an overlapping—intellectual ancestry."〕 seek to abolish capitalism and private ownership of the means of production in favor of their common or cooperative ownership and management.〔Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. ''The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America''. London: Sage Publications. p. 1007. ISBN 1412988764. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and left-libertarianism"〕 An additional line of division is between minarchists and anarchists. While minarchists think that a minimal centralized government is necessary, anarchists propose to completely eliminate the state.〔Caplan, Bryan (2008). "Anarchism". In Hamowy, Ronald, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism''. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. pp. 10–13. "Libertarianism puts severe limits on morally permissible government action. If one takes its strictures seriously, does libertarianism require the abolition of government, logically reducing the position to anarchism? Robert Nozick effectively captures this dilemma: 'Individuals have rights, and there are things no person or group may do to them (without violating their rights). So strong and far-reaching are these rights that they raise the question of what, if anything, the state and its official may do.' Libertarian political philosophers have extensively debated this question, and many conclude that the answer is 'Nothing'."〕〔Friedman, David D. (2008). "(libertarianism )". ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics''. 2nd Edition. "Libertarians differ among themselves in the degree to which they rely on rights-based or consequentialist arguments and on how far they take their conclusions, ranging from classical liberals, who wish only to drastically reduce government, to anarcho-capitalists who would replace all useful government functions with private alternatives."〕 The term ''libertarianism'' originally referred to a philosophical belief in free will but later became associated with anti-state socialism and Enlightenment-influenced political movements critical of institutional authority believed to serve forms of social domination and injustice. While it has generally retained its earlier political usage as a synonym for either social or individualist anarchism through much of the world, in the United States it has since come to describe pro-capitalist economic liberalism more so than radical, anti-capitalist egalitarianism. In the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', libertarianism is defined as the moral view that agents initially fully own themselves and have certain moral powers to acquire property rights in external things. As individualist opponents of social liberalism embraced the label and distanced themselves from the word ''liberal'', American writers, political parties, and think tanks adopted the word ''libertarian'' to describe advocacy of capitalist free market economics and a night-watchman state. == Etymology == The term ''libertarian'' was first used by late-Enlightenment freethinkers to refer to the metaphysical belief in free will, as opposed to determinism. The first recorded use was in 1789, when William Belsham wrote about libertarianism in opposition to "necessitarian", i.e. determinist, views. ''Libertarian'' came to mean an advocate or defender of liberty, especially in the political and social spheres, as early as 1796, when the London Packet printed on 12 February: "Lately marched out of the Prison at Bristol, 450 of the French Libertarians."〔OED November 2010 edition〕 The word was again used in a political sense in 1802, in a short piece critiquing a poem by "the author of Gebir", and has since been used with this meaning.〔''(The British Critic )''. p. 432. "The author's Latin verses, which are rather more intelligible than his English, mark him for a furious Libertarian (if we may coin such a term) and a zealous admirer of France, and her liberty, under Bonaparte; such liberty!"〕〔Seeley, John Robert (1878). ''Life and Times of Stein: Or Germany and Prussia in the Napoleonic Age''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3: 355.〕〔Maitland, Frederick William (July 1901). "William Stubbs, Bishop of Oxford". ''English Historical Review''. 16(): 419.〕 The use of the word ''libertarian'' to describe a new set of political positions has been traced to the French cognate, ''libertaire'', coined in a scathing letter French libertarian communist Joseph Déjacque wrote to mutualist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1857, castigating him for his sexist political views.〔Marshall (2009). p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal ''Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social'' published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sebastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists."〕 Déjacque also used the term for his anarchist publication ''Le Libertaire: Journal du Mouvement Social'', which was printed from 9 June 1858 to 4 February 1861 in New York City.〔"He called himself a "social poet," and published two volumes of heavily didactic verse—Lazaréennes and Les Pyrénées Nivelées. In New York, from 1858 to 1861, he edited an anarchist paper entitled ''Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social'', in whose pages he printed as a serial his vision of the anarchist Utopia, entitled L'Humanisphére." George Woodcock. ''Anarchism: a history of libertarian ideas and movements''. Meridian books. 1962. p. 280〕〔(Numbered editions of Le Libertaire from New York City )〕 In the mid-1890s, Sébastien Faure began publishing a new ''Le Libertaire'' while France's Third Republic enacted the lois scélérates ("villainous laws"), which banned anarchist publications in France. ''Libertarianism'' has frequently been used as a synonym for ''anarchism'' since this time.〔Colin Ward (2004), (''Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction'' ), Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."〕 Although the word ''libertarian'' continues to be widely used to refer to socialists internationally, its meaning in the United States has deviated from its political origins.〔Fernandez, Frank (2001). Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement''. Sharp Press. (p. 9 ). "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term 'libertarian' has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."〕 Libertarianism in the United States has been described as conservative on economic issues and liberal on personal freedom〔Boaz, David; Kirby, David (18 October 2006). ''The Libertarian Vote''. Cato Institute.〕 (for common meanings of ''conservative'' and ''liberal'' in the United States); it is also often associated with a foreign policy of non-interventionism.〔Carpenter, Ted Galen; Innocent, Malou (2008). "Foreign Policy". In Hamowy, Ronald, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism''. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. (pp. 177–80 ).〕〔Edward A. Olsen, ''US National Defense for the Twenty-First Century: The Grand Exit Strategy'', Taylor & Francis, 2002, (p. 182 ), ISBN 0714681407, ISBN 9780714681405.〕 Since the resurgence of neoliberalism in the 1970s, free-market capitalist libertarianism has spread beyond North America via think tanks and political parties.〔Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond," (pp. 136–69) in (Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century ) by Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「libertarianism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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