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Manorialism, an essential element of feudal society,〔"Feudal Society", in its modern sense was coined in Marc Bloch's 1939–40 books of the same name. Bloch (''Feudal Society'' tr. L.A. Masnyon, 1965, vol. II p. 442) emphasised the distinction between economic manorialism which preceded feudalism and survived it, and political and social feudalism, or ''seigneurialism''.〕 was the organizing principle of rural economy that originated in the villa system of the Late Roman Empire,〔Peter Sarris, "The Origins of the Manorial Economy: New Insights from Late Antiquity", ''The English Historical Review'' 119 (April 2004:279–311).〕 was widely practiced in medieval western and parts of central Europe, and was slowly replaced by the advent of a money-based market economy and new forms of agrarian contract. Manorialism was characterised by the vesting of legal and economic power in a Lord of the Manor, supported economically from his own direct landholding in a manor (sometimes called a fief), and from the obligatory contributions of a legally subject part of the peasant population under the jurisdiction of himself and his manorial court. These obligations could be payable in several ways, in labor (the French term ''corvée'' is conventionally applied), in kind, or, on rare occasions, in coin. In examining the origins of the monastic cloister, Walter Horn found that "as a manorial entity the Carolingian monastery ... differed little from the fabric of a feudal estate, save that the corporate community of men for whose sustenance this organization was maintained consisted of monks who served God in chant and spent much of their time in reading and writing."〔Horn, "On the Origins of the Medieval Cloister" ''Gesta'' 12.1/2 (1973:13–52), quote p. 41.〕 Manorialism died slowly and piecemeal, along with its most vivid feature in the landscape, the open field system. It outlasted serfdom as it outlasted feudalism: "primarily an economic organization, it could maintain a warrior, but it could equally well maintain a capitalist landlord. It could be self-sufficient, yield produce for the market, or it could yield a money rent."〔Andrew Jones, "The Rise and Fall of the Manorial System: A Critical Comment" ''The Journal of Economic History'' 32.4 (December 1972:938–944) p. 938; a comment on D. North and R. Thomas, "The rise and fall of the manorial system: a theoretical model", ''The Journal of Economic History'' 31 (December 1971:777–803).〕 The last feudal dues in France were abolished at the French Revolution. In parts of eastern Germany, the ''Rittergut'' manors of Junkers remained until World War II.〔Hartwin Spenkuch, "Herrenhaus und Rittergut: Die Erste Kammer des Landtags und der preußische Adel von 1854 bis 1918 aus sozialgeschichtlicher Sicht" ''Geschichte und Gesellschaft'', 25.3 (July – September 1999):375–403).〕 In Quebec, the last feudal rents were paid in 1970 under the modified provisions of the ''Seigniorial Dues Abolition Act'' of 1935. ==Historical and geographical distribution== The term is most often used with reference to medieval Western Europe. Antecedents of the system can be traced to the rural economy of the later Roman Empire. With a declining birthrate and population, labor was the key factor of production. Successive administrations tried to stabilise the imperial economy by freezing the social structure into place: sons were to succeed their fathers in their trade, councilors were forbidden to resign, and ''coloni'', the cultivators of land, were not to move from the land they were attached to. The workers of the land were on their way to becoming serfs.〔C.R. Whittaker, "Circe's pigs: from slavery to serfdom in the later Roman world", ''Slavery and Abolition'' 8 (1987:87–122.〕 Several factors conspired to merge the status of former slaves and former free farmers into a dependent class of such ''coloni'': it was possible to be described as ''servus et colonus'', "both slave and ''colonus''".〔Averil Cameron, ''The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity AD 395–600'', 1993:86.〕 Laws of Constantine I around 325 both reinforced the semi-servile status of the ''coloni'' and limited their rights to sue in the courts; the ''Codex Theodosianus'' promulgated under Theodosius II extended these restrictions. The legal status of ''adscripti'', "bound to the soil",〔Cameron 1993:86 instances ''Codex Justinianus'' XI. 48.21.1; 50,2.3; 52.1.1.〕 contrasted with barbarian ''foederati'', who were permitted to settle within the imperial boundaries, remaining subject to their own traditional law. As the Germanic kingdoms succeeded Roman authority in the West in the fifth century, Roman landlords were often simply replaced by Gothic or Germanic ones, with little change to the underlying situation or displacement of populations. The process of rural self-sufficiency was given an abrupt boost in the eighth century, when normal trade in the Mediterranean Sea was disrupted. The thesis put forward by Henri Pirenne, while disputed widely, supposes that the Arab conquests forced the medieval economy into even greater ruralization and gave rise to the classic feudal pattern of varying degrees of servile peasantry underpinning a hierarchy of localised power centers. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「manorialism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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