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masculinity
Masculinity (also called boyhood, manliness or manhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. It is a combination of socially-defined and biological factors, distinct from the definition of the male anatomical sex.〔''(Gender, Women and Health: What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?' )'', The World Health Organization〕 Both men and women can exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.〔Butler, Judith (1999 ()), Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York and London: Routledge).〕〔Laurie, Timothy (2014), 'The Ethics of Nobody I Know: Gender and the Politics of Description', Qualitative Research Journal, 14 (1), pp. 64-78.URL: https://www.academia.edu/6262250/The_Ethics_of_Nobody_I_Know_Gender_and_the_Politics_of_Description〕
Masculine traits include courage, independence and assertiveness.〔Vetterling-Braggin, Mary ''"Femininity," "masculinity," and "androgyny": a modern philosophical discussion''〕〔Worell, Judith, ''Encyclopedia of women and gender: sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender, Volume 1'' Elsevier, 2001, ISBN 0-12-227246-3, ISBN 978-0-12-227246-2〕 These traits vary by location and context, and are influenced by social and cultural factors. An overemphasis on masculinity and power, often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility, is known as machismo.
==Overview==
Masculine qualities, characteristics or roles are considered typical of, or appropriate for, a boy or man. They have degrees of comparison: "more masculine" and "most masculine", and the opposite may be expressed by "unmanly" or "epicene".〔''Roget’s II: The New Thesaurus'', 3rd. ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1995.〕 Similar to masculinity is virility (from the Latin ''vir'', "man"). The concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally; although the dandy was seen as a 19th-century ideal of masculinity, he is considered effeminate by modern standards. Masculine norms, as described in Ronald F. Levant's ''Masculinity Reconstructed'', are "avoidance of femininity; restricted emotions; sex disconnected from intimacy; pursuit of achievement and status; self-reliance; strength and aggression, and homophobia." These norms reinforce gender roles by associating attributes and characteristics with one gender.
The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with other axes of social discrimination and concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference (prevalent in a number of philosophical and sociological theories).
抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
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