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Postmodernism is a late-20th-century movement in the arts, architecture, and criticism that was a departure from modernism.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=postmodernism: definition of postmodernism in Oxford dictionary (American English) (US) )〕〔Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989; (American Heritage Dictionary's definition of "postmodern" )〕 Postmodernism includes skeptical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, history, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. It is often associated with deconstruction and post-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time as twentieth-century post-structural thought. The term ''postmodernism'' has been applied to a host of movements, mainly in art, music, and literature, that reacted against tendencies in modernism, and are typically marked by revival of historical elements and techniques.〔''Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', 2004〕 ==History== The term ''postmodern'' was first used around the 1880s. John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French Impressionism.〔Hassan, Ihab, ''The Postmodern Turn, Essays in Postmodern Theory and Culture'', Ohio University Press, 1987. p. 12ff.〕 J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in ''The Hibbert Journal'' (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion: "The raison d'etre of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."〔Thompson, J. M. "Post-Modernism," ''The Hibbert Journal''. Vol XII No. 4, July 1914. p. 733〕 In 1921 and 1925, postmodernism had been used to describe new forms of art and music. In 1942 H. R. Hays described it as a new literary form. However, as a general theory for a historical movement it was first used in 1939 by Arnold J. Toynbee: "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918".〔Arnold J. Toynbee, (''A study of History'', Volume 5 ), Oxford University Press, 1961 (), p. 43.〕 In 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction with modern architecture, and led to the postmodern architecture movement,〔''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 2004〕 perhaps also a response to the modernist architectural movement known as the International Style. Postmodernism in architecture is marked by a re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban architecture, historical reference in decorative forms (eclecticism), and non-orthogonal angles. Peter Drucker suggested the transformation into a post modern world happened between 1937 and 1957 (when he was writing). He described an as yet "nameless era" which he characterised as a shift to conceptual world based on pattern purpose and process rather than mechanical cause, outlined by four new realities: the emergence of Educated Society, the importance of international development, the decline of the nation state, and the collapse of the viability of non-Western cultures. In 1971, in a lecture delivered at the Institute of Contemporary Art, London, Mel Bochner described "post-modernism" in art as having started with Jasper Johns, "who first rejected sense-data and the singular point-of-view as the basis for his art, and treated art as a critical investigation."〔Bochner, Mel. ''Solar system & rest rooms: writings and interviews, 1965-2007'', MIT Press, 2008, p. 91.〕 More recently, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views, which he identifies as either (a) Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, (b) Scientific-rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry, (c) Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization, or (d) Neo-romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self. Postmodernist ideas in philosophy and the analysis of culture and society expanded the importance of critical theory and has been the point of departure for works of literature, architecture, and design, as well as being visible in marketing/business and the interpretation of history, law and culture, starting in the late 20th century. These developments—re-evaluation of the entire Western value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from industrial to service economy) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968—are described with the term ''Postmodernity'',〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=TRANS Nr. 11: Paul Michael Lützeler (St. Louis): From Postmodernism to Postcolonialism )〕 as opposed to ''Postmodernism'', a term referring to an opinion or movement. Postmodernism has also been used interchangeably with the term post-structuralism out of which postmodernism grew, a proper understanding of postmodernism or doing justice to the postmodernist thought demands an understanding of the poststructuralist movement and the ideas of its advocates. Post-structuralism resulted similarly to postmodernism by following a time of structuralism. It is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to the original form.〔Yilmaz, K 2010, 'Postmodernism and its Challenge to the Discipline of History: Implications for History Education', Educational Philosophy & Theory, 42, 7, pp. 779-795, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 18 April 2012.〕 "Postmodernist" describes part of a movement; "Postmodern" places it in the period of time since the 1950s, making it a part of contemporary history. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「postmodernism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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