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Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".〔(pramANa ) Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany〕〔James Lochtefeld, "Pramana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pages 520-521〕 It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies, and is one of the key, much debated fields of study in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, since ancient times. It is a theory of knowledge, and encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge.〔 The focus of Pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one doesn't, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.〔〔DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, page 172〕 Ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six〔A few Indian scholars such as Vedvyasa discuss ten, Krtakoti discusses eight, but six is most widely accepted; see Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), ''Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History'', Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, pages 149-150〕 ''pramanas'' as correct means of accurate knowledge and to truths: ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception), ''Anumāṇa'' (inference), ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison and analogy), ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, derivation from circumstances), ''Anupalabdi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and ''Śabda'' (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).〔〔Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page 225〕 Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by each school of Indian philosophies. The various schools of Indian philosophies vary on how many of these six are epistemically reliable and valid means to knowledge.〔P Bilimoria (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy - Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, ISBN 978-94-010-5107-1, pages 137-154〕 For example, Carvaka school of Hinduism holds that only one (perception) is a reliable source of knowledge,〔 Buddhism holds two (perception, inference) are valid means,〔〔 Jainism holds three (perception, inference and testimony),〔John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238〕 while Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hinduism hold all six are useful and can be reliable means to knowledge.〔 *Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages 245-248; *John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238〕 The various schools of Indian philosophy have debated whether one of the six forms of ''pramana'' can be derived from other, and the relative uniqueness of each. For example, Buddhism considers Buddha and other "valid persons", "valid scriptures" and "valid minds" as indisputable, but that such testimony is a form of perception and inference ''pramanas''.〔 The science and study of ''Pramanas'' is called ''Nyaya''.〔Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0779-0, pages 25-26〕 ==Etymology== ''Pramāṇa'' literally means "proof". The word also refers to a concept and field of Indian philosophy. The concept is derived from the Sanskrit root, ''prama'' (प्रमा) which means "correct notion, true knowledge, basis, foundation, accurate notion".〔(pramA ) Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany〕〔John A. Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 237-238〕 Thus, the concept ''Pramana'' implies that which is a "means of acquiring ''prama'' or certain, correct, true knowledge".〔 ''Pramāṇa'' forms one part of a tripuţi (trio) of concepts, which describe the ancient Indian view on how knowledge is gained. The other two concepts are knower and knowable, each discussed in how they influence the knowledge, by their own characteristic and the process of knowing. The two are called ''Pramātŗ'' (प्रमातृ, the subject, the knower) and ''Prameya'' (प्रमेय, the object, the knowable).〔(pramAtR ) Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany〕〔(prameya ) Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany〕 The term ''Pramana'' is commonly found in various schools of Hinduism. In Buddhist literature, ''Pramana'' is referred to as ''Pramāṇavāda''.〔Tom J. F. Tillemans (2011), Buddhist Epistemology (pramāṇavāda), The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy (Editors: William Edelglass and Jay L. Garfield), 〕 ''Pramana'' is also related to the Indian concept of ''Yukti'' (युक्ति) which means active application of epistemology or what one already knows, innovation, clever expedients or connections, methodological or reasoning trick, joining together, application of contrivance, means, method, novelty or device to more efficiently achieve a purpose.〔(yukti ) Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany〕〔R Narasimha (2012), Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science: Knowledge Crossing Boundaries, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1137031723, pages 95-97〕 ''Yukti'' and ''Pramana'' are discussed together in some Indian texts, with ''Yukti'' described as active process of gaining knowledge in contrast to passive process of gaining knowledge through observation/perception.〔R Narasimha (2012), Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science: Knowledge Crossing Boundaries, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1137031723, pages 95-105〕〔CA Scherrer-Schaub (1981), ''Le term yukti: primiere etude'', Etudes Asiatiques, 35: 185-199〕 The texts on ''Pramana'', particularly by Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hinduism, include in their meaning and scope "Theories of Errors", that is why human beings make error and reach incorrect knowledge, how can one know if one is wrong, and if so, how can one discover whether one's epistemic method was flawed, or one's conclusion (truth) was flawed, in order to revise oneself and reach correct knowledge.〔EI Warrier (2012), Advaita Vedānta from 800 to 1200 (Editor: Karl Potter), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120830615, pages 512-530, 684〕〔Gerald Larson and Ram Bhattacharya, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies (Editor:Karl Potter), Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691073019, pages 361-362〕〔L Schmithausen (1965), Maṇḍana Miśra's Vibhrama-viveka, Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Phil.-hist. Klasse. Sitzungsberichte, Vol. 247; For excerpts in English: Allen Thrasher (1993), The Advaita Vedānta of Brahma-siddhi, ISBN 978-8120809826, pages 20-38〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「pramana」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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