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In the law of evidence, a presumption of a particular fact can be made without the aid of proof in some situations. The types of presumption include a rebuttable discretionary presumption, a rebuttable mandatory presumption, and an irrebuttable or conclusive presumption. The invocation of a presumption shifts the burden of proof from one party to the opposing party in a court trial. Presumptions are sometimes categorized into two types: presumptions without basic facts, and presumptions with basic facts. In the United States, mandatory presumptions are impermissible in criminal cases, but permissible presumptions are allowed. The ancient Jewish law code, the Talmud, included reasoning from presumptions (''hazakah''), propositions taken to be true unless there was reason to believe otherwise, such as "One does not ordinarily pay a debt before term."〔J. Franklin, ''The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 6.〕 The same concept was found in ancient Roman law, where, for example, if there was doubt as to whether a child was really the issue of someone who had left money in a will, the presumption was in favour of the child.〔Franklin, ''Science of Conjecture'', 9.〕 Medieval Roman and canon law graded presumptions according to strength: light, medium or probable, and violent.〔Franklin, ''Science of Conjecture'', 20–23.〕 These gradings and many individual presumptions were taken over into English law in the seventeenth century by Edward Coke.〔Franklin, ''Science of Conjecture'', 60–61.〕 There are two types of presumption: rebuttable presumption and conclusive presumption. An example of presumption without basic facts is presumption of innocence.〔Technically, the presumption of innocence is not a presumption, but rather is a rhetorical expression that emphasizes that the prosecution bears the burden of proof in a criminal case. The accused has no obligation to adduce evidence in their favor and is automatically acquitted unless the prosecution proves guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. See presumption of innocence.〕 An example of presumption ''with'' basic facts is Declared death in absentia, e.g., the law says if a person has been missing for seven years or more (basic fact), that person is presumed dead. ==Specific presumptions== A number of presumptions are found in most common law jurisdictions. Examples of these presumptions include: *The presumption of death. A person who has been absent for seven years without explanation and "gone to parts unknown" is presumed dead at common law.〔''Prudential Insurance Comp. v. Moore'', 197 Ind. 50, 149 N.E. 718 (Ind. 1925)〕 The time period it takes for the presumption to arise has often been modified by statute.〔E.g. Ind. Code § 29-2-5-1.〕 *The presumption of innocence, which holds that the prosecution bears the burden of proof in a criminal case with the result that the accused may be acquitted without putting forward any evidence. *The presumption of legitimacy or presumption of paternity, which presumes that a husband is the biological father of a child born to his wife during the marriage, or within nine months after the marriage is ended by death, legal separation, or divorce.〔E.g. Ind. Code § 31-14-7-1.〕 Some jurisdictions also hold that a presumption of paternity arises when a father accepts a child into his home, or publicly represents that he is the child's father.〔E.g. Ind. Code § 31-14-7-2.〕 *A presumption of survivorship has referred to a number of different presumptions. The term is sometimes used to refer to presumptions that one or another of two persons lived the longer when they died together in the same accident.〔Black's Law Dictionary (5th. ed., 1979; West Publishing Co., ISBN 0-8299-2041-2), p. 1068, "Presumption of survivorship"〕 The presumption that two or more people who establish a joint account intend for the survivors to have the assets put into the fund upon the death of one of the joint account holders has also been called the "presumption of survivorship".〔E.g. ''Matter of Estate of Banko'', 622 N.E.2d 476 (Ind. 1993)〕 *The presumption of mailing presumes that a properly addressed letter delivered to the post office or a common carrier was in fact delivered and received by the addressee.〔E.g. ''U-Haul Co. of Indiana, Inc. v. Indiana Dept. of State Revenue'', 896 N.E.2d 1253 (Ind.Tax 2008)〕 *The presumption of fraud or undue influence arises where a person in a position of trust over another, such as a guardian or the holder of a power of attorney applies the other person's assets to his or her own benefit.〔''In re Estate of Compton'', 919 N.E.2d 1181, (Ind.Ct.App. 2010), trans. denied〕 *The presumption of validity is another way of expressing a burden of proof: the official acts of courts are presumed valid, and those who would challenge them must overcome this presumption.〔''Monon Corp. v. Townsend, Yosha, Cline & Price'', 678 N.E.2d 807, 809 (Ind.Ct.App. 1997).〕 This is also termed the presumption of regularity.〔Cooper, Simon & Murphy, Peter & Beaumont, John. Cases & Materials on Evidence. Fourth Edition. Oxford University Press. 1994. p. 86〕 *The presumption of advancement in relation to transfers from husbands to wives and from fathers to children. *In the law of the United States, the presumption of constitutionality presumes that all statutes are drafted in accordance with Federal and state constitutional requirements. The party challenging the constitutionality of a statute bears the burden of proof, and any doubts are resolved against that party. If there are two reasonable interpretations of a statute, one of which is constitutional and the other not, the courts choose the path that permits upholding the statute.〔''Boehm v. Town of St. John'', 675 N.E.2d 318 (Ind.1996)〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「presumption」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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