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Suffering, or pain in a broad sense,〔See 'Terminology'. See also the entry 'Pleasure' in (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ), which begins with this paragraph: "Pleasure, in the inclusive usages most important in moral psychology, ethical theory, and the studies of mind, includes all joy and gladness — all our feeling good, or happy. It is often contrasted with similarly inclusive pain, or suffering, which is similarly thought of as including all our feeling bad." It should be mentioned that most encyclopedias, like the one mentioned above and Britannica, do not have an article about suffering and deal with pain in the physical sense only.〕 may be an experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual.〔For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapter 14 of Perspectives on Human Suffering (Jeff Malpas and Norelle Lickiss, editors, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."〕 Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence of affective phenomena. The opposite of suffering is pleasure, or happiness. Suffering is often categorized as physical〔Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation ()(). Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on page 103 of (Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics ): "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on." Sensations of cold or heat may be two other common physical sufferings.〕 or mental.〔Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.〕 It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and frequency of occurrence usually compound that of intensity. Attitudes toward suffering may vary widely, in the sufferer or other people, according to how much it is regarded as avoidable or unavoidable, useful or useless, deserved or undeserved. Suffering occurs in the lives of sentient beings in numerous manners, and often dramatically. As a result, many fields of human activity are concerned with some aspects of suffering. These aspects may include the nature of suffering, its processes, its origin and causes, its meaning and significance, its related personal, social, and cultural behaviors, its remedies, management, and uses. ==Terminology== The word ''suffering'' is sometimes used in the narrow sense of physical pain, but more often it refers to mental pain, or more often yet to pain in the broad sense, i.e. to any unpleasant feeling, emotion or sensation. The word ''pain'' usually refers to physical pain, but it is also a common synonym of ''suffering''. The words ''pain'' and ''suffering'' are often used both together in different ways. For instance, they may be used as interchangeable synonyms. Or they may be used in 'contradistinction' to one another, as in "pain is physical, suffering is mental", or "pain is inevitable, suffering is optional". Or they may be used to define each other, as in "pain is physical suffering", or "suffering is severe physical or mental pain". Qualifiers, such as ''physical'', ''mental'', ''emotional'', and ''psychological'', are often used for referring to certain types of pain or suffering. In particular, ''mental pain (or suffering)'' may be used in relationship with ''physical pain (or suffering)'' for distinguishing between two wide categories of pain or suffering. A first caveat concerning such a distinction is that it uses ''physical pain'' in a sense that normally includes not only the 'typical sensory experience of physical pain' but also other unpleasant bodily experiences including air hunger, hunger, vestibular suffering, nausea, sleep deprivation, and itching. A second caveat is that the terms ''physical'' or ''mental'' should not be taken too literally: physical pain or suffering, as a matter of fact, happens through conscious minds and involves emotional aspects, while mental pain or suffering happens through physical brains and, being an emotion, involves important physiological aspects. The word ''unpleasantness'', which some people use as a synonym of ''suffering'' or ''pain'' in the broad sense, may be used to refer to the basic affective dimension of pain (its suffering aspect), usually in contrast with the sensory dimension, as for instance in this sentence: "Pain-unpleasantness is often, though not always, closely linked to both the intensity and unique qualities of the painful sensation."〔Donald D. Price, (Central Neural Mechanisms that Interrelate Sensory and Affective Dimensions of Pain ), ‘’Molecular Interventions’’ 2:392-403 (2002).〕 Other current words that have a definition with some similarity to ''suffering'' include ''distress, unhappiness, misery, affliction, woe, ill, discomfort, displeasure, disagreeableness''. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「suffering」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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