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A superorganism is an organism consisting of many organisms. The term is used most often to describe a social unit of eusocial animals, where division of labour is highly specialised and where individuals are not able to survive by themselves for extended periods. Ants are the best-known example of such a superorganism, while the naked mole-rat is a famous example of the eusocial mammal. The technical definition of a superorganism is "a collection of agents which can act in concert to produce phenomena governed by the collective," phenomena being any activity "the hive wants" such as ants collecting food or bees choosing a new nest site. Superorganisms tend to exhibit the behaviours of homeostasis, power law scaling, persistent disequilibrium and emergent behaviours 〔(Technium Unbound, SALT The Long Now Foundation )〕 The term was coined in 1789 by James Hutton, the "Father of Geology", to refer to Earth in the context of geophysiology. The Gaia hypothesis of James Lovelock,〔''Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth'', James Lovelock, Oxford University Press, 1979〕 and Lynn Margulis as well as the work of Hutton, Vladimir Vernadsky and Guy Murchie, have suggested that the biosphere can be considered a superorganism, although this has been disputed strongly. This view relates to Systems Theory and the dynamics of a complex system. Superorganisms are important in cybernetics, particularly biocybernetics. They exhibit a form of "distributed intelligence," a system in which many individual agents with limited intelligence and information are able to pool resources to accomplish a goal beyond the capabilities of the individuals. Existence of such behavior in organisms has many implications for military and management applications, and is being actively researched.〔 If Col. Thorpe (the US DARPA ) has his way, the four divisions of the US military and hundreds of industrial subcontractors will become a single interconnected superorganism. The immediate step to this world of distributed intelligence is an engineering protocol developed by a consortium of defense simulation centers in Orlando Florida ...〕 == Superorganic in social theory == Nineteenth century thinker Herbert Spencer coined the term ''super-organic'' to focus on social organization (the first chapter of his ''Principles of Sociology'' is entitled "Super-organic Evolution"〔''The Principles of Sociology'', Vol. 1, Part 1. "The Data of Sociology", Herbert Spencer, 1876〕), though this was apparently a distinction between the organic and the social, ''not'' an identity: Spencer explored the holistic nature of society as a social organism while distinguishing the ways in which society did not behave like an organism.〔''The Principles of Sociology'', Vol. 1, Part 2, Chapter II, "A Society Is an Organism" (sections 222 and 223), Herbert Spencer, 1876〕 For Spencer, the super-organic was an emergent property of interacting organisms, that is, human beings. And, as has been argued by D. C. Phillips, there is a "difference between emergence and reductionism."〔''Holistic Thought in Social Science'', D. C. Phillips, Stanford University Press, 1976, p. 123〕 Similarly, economist Carl Menger expanded upon the evolutionary nature of much social growth, but without ever abandoning methodological individualism. Many social institutions arose, Menger argued, not as "the result of socially teleological causes, but the unintended result of innumerable efforts of economic subjects pursuing 'individual' interests."〔''Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics'', Carl Menger, Louis Schneider (translator), New York University Press, 1985〕 Spencer and Menger both argued that because it is individuals who choose and act, any social whole should be considered less than an organism, though Menger emphasized this more emphatically. Spencer used the organistic idea to engage in extended analysis of social structure, conceding that it was primarily an analogy. So, for Spencer, the idea of the super-organic best designated a distinct level of social reality above that of biology and psychology, and not a one-to-one identity with an organism. Nevertheless, Spencer also argued that "every organism of appreciable size is a society," which has suggested to some that the issue may be terminological.〔''The Political Philosophy of Herbert Spencer'', Tim S. Gray, 1996, p. 211〕 The term ''superorganic'' was adopted by anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber in 1917.〔''Patterns of Culture'', Ruth Benedict, Houghton Mifflin, 1934, p. 231〕 Social aspects of the superorganism concept are analysed in Marshall (2002).〔Marshall, A. (2002). ''(The Unity of Nature )'', Imperial College Press, London.〕 Finally, recent work in social psychology has offered the superorganism metaphor as a unifying framework to understand diverse aspects of human sociality, such as religion, comformity, and social identity processes.〔Kesebir, Selin. ''(The Superorganism Account of Human Sociality: How and When Human Groups are Like Beehives )''. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2012, 16, 233-261.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「superorganism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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