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A textbook or coursebook (UK English) is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. Textbooks are produced according to the demands of educational institutions. Schoolbooks are textbooks and other books used in schools.〔http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/schoolbook〕 Although most textbooks are only published in printed format, many are now available as online electronic books. ==History== The ancient Greeks wrote ''texts'' intended for education. The modern textbook has its roots in the standardization made possible by the printing press. Johannes Gutenberg himself may have printed editions of Ars Minor, a schoolbook on Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus. Early textbooks were used by tutors and teachers, who used the books as instructional aids (e.g., alphabet books), as well as individuals who taught themselves. The Greek philosopher Plato lamented the loss of knowledge because the media of transmission were changing.〔http://wondermark.com/socrates-vs-writing/ True Stuff: Socrates vs. the Written Word, January 27th, 2011. By David Malki〕 Before the invention of the Greek alphabet 2,500 years ago, knowledge and stories were recited aloud, much like Homer's epic poems. The new technology of writing meant stories no longer needed to be memorized, a development Socrates feared would weaken the Greeks' mental capacities for memorizing and retelling. (Ironically, we know about Socrates' concerns only because they were written down by his student Plato in his famous Dialogues.) 〔Marcia Clemmitt, "Learning Online Literacy," in "Reading Crisis?" CQ Researcher, Feb. 22, 2008, pp. 169-192.〕 The next revolution for books came with the 15th-century invention of printing with changeable type. The invention is attributed to German metalsmith Johannes Gutenberg, who cast type in molds using a melted metal alloy and constructed a wooden-screw printing press to transfer the image onto paper. Gutenberg's first and only large-scale printing effort was the now iconic Gutenberg Bible in the 1450s — a Latin translation from the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament, copies of which can be viewed on the British Library website. Gutenberg's invention made mass production of texts possible for the first time. Although the Gutenberg Bible itself was stratospherically expensive, printed books began to spread widely over European trade routes during the next 50 years, and by the 16th century, printed books had become more widely accessible and less costly.〔British Library, "Treasures in Full: Gutenberg Bible," http://www.bl.uk/treasures/gutenberg/background.html.〕 Compulsory education and the subsequent growth of schooling in Europe led to the printing of many standardized texts for children. Textbooks have become the primary teaching instrument for most children since the 19th century. Two textbooks of historical significance in United States schooling were the 18th century New England Primer and the 19th century McGuffey Readers. Technological advances change the way people interact with textbooks. Online and digital materials are making it increasingly easy for students to access materials other than the traditional print textbook. Students now have access to electronic and PDF books, online tutoring systems and video lectures. An example of an electronically published book, or e-book, is ''Principles of Biology'' from Nature Publishing. Most notably, an increasing number of authors are foregoing commercial publishers and offering their textbooks under a creative commons or other open license. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「textbook」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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