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Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.〔''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'', Namit Bhatia, ed., 1992, pp. 1,051–54.〕 Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.〔J.M. Cohen, "Translation", ''Encyclopedia Americana'', 1986, vol. 27, p. 12.〕 Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.〔Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", ''The Polish Review'', vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 84-87.〕 Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations.〔Andrew Wilson, ''Translators on Translating: Inside the Invisible Art'', Vancouver, CCSP Press, 2009.〕 Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation).〔W.J. Hutchins, ''Early Years in Machine Translation: Memoirs and Biographies of Pioneers'', Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2000.〕 The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localization.〔M. Snell-Hornby, ''The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints?'', Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 2006, p. 133.〕 Translation studies systematically study the theory and practice of translation.〔Susan Bassnett, ''Translation studies'', pp. 13-37.〕 ==Etymology== The English word "translation" derives from the Latin ラテン語:''translatio'' (which itself comes from ''trans-'' and from ''fero'', the supine form of which is ''latum''—together meaning "a carrying across" or "a bringing across"). The modern Romance languages use equivalents of the English term "translation" that are derived from that same Latin source or from the alternative Latin ラテン語:''traduco'' ("to lead across" or "to bring across"). The Slavic and Germanic languages (except in the case of the Dutch equivalent, "''vertaling''"—a "re-language-ing") likewise use calques of these Latin sources.〔Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83.〕 The Ancient Greek term for "translation", (''metaphrasis'', "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal," or "word-for-word," translation) — as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from , ''paraphrasis'').〔 "Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence."〔Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 84.〕 Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase — of "word-for-word translation" — is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ''ideal'' concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.〔"Ideal concepts" are useful as well in other fields, such as physics and chemistry, which include the concepts of perfectly solid bodies, perfectly rigid bodies, perfectly plastic bodies, perfectly black bodies, perfect crystals, perfect fluids, and perfect gases. Władysław Tatarkiewicz, ''On Perfection'' (first published in Polish in 1976 as ''O doskonałości''); English translation by Christopher Kasparek subsequently serialized in 1979–1981 in ''Dialectics and Humanism: The Polish Philosophical Quarterly'', and reprinted in Władysław Tatarkiewicz, ''On Perfection'', Warsaw University Press, 1992.〕 A secular icon for the art of translation is the Rosetta Stone. This trilingual (hieroglyphic-Egyptian, demotic-Egyptian, ancient-Greek) stele became the translator's key to decryption of Egyptian hieroglyphs by Thomas Young, Jean-François Champollion, and others.〔''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', fifth edition, 1994, p. 2,361.〕 In the United States of America, the Rosetta Stone is incorporated into the crest of the Defense Language Institute. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「translation」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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