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Usury (〔The word is derived from Medieval Latin ''usuria'', "interest", or from Latin ''usura'', "interest"〕) is today the practice of making unethical or immoral monetary loans that unfairly enrich the lender. Originally, usury meant interest of any kind. A loan may be considered usurious because of excessive or abusive interest rates or other factors. Historically in Christian societies, and in many Islamic societies today, charging any interest at all can be considered usury.〔Longman Exams Dictionary〕 Someone who practices usury can be called a ''usurer'', but a more common term in contemporary English is ''loan shark''. The term may be used in a moral sense—condemning taking advantage of others' misfortunes—or in a legal sense where interest rates may be regulated by law. Historically, some cultures (e.g., Christianity in much of Medieval Europe, and Islam in many parts of the world today) have regarded charging any interest for loans as sinful. Some of the earliest known condemnations of usury come from the Vedic texts of India. Similar condemnations are found in religious texts from Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (the term is ''riba'' in Arabic and ''ribbit'' in Hebrew). At times, many nations from ancient China to ancient Greece to ancient Rome have outlawed loans with any interest. Though the Roman Empire eventually allowed loans with carefully restricted interest rates, the Christian church in medieval Europe banned the charging of interest at any rate (as well as charging a fee for the use of money, such as at a bureau de change). The pivotal change in the English-speaking world seems to have come with lawful rights to charge interest on lent money,〔Eisenstein, Charles: (Sacred Economics: Money, Gift, and Society in the Age of Transition )〕 particularly the 1545 Act, "An Act Against Usurie" (37 H. viii 9) of King Henry VIII of England. ==Historical meaning== Banking during Roman times was different from modern banking. During the Principate, most banking activities were conducted by private individuals, not by such large banking firms as exist today. Since almost all moneylenders in the Empire were private individuals, anybody that had any additional capital and wished to lend it out could easily do so.〔Zgur, Andrej: ''(The economy of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries A.D., An examination of market capitalism in the Roman economy )'', Aarhus School of Business, December 2007, pp. 252–261.〕 The rate of interest on loans varied in the range of 4–12 percent; but when the interest rate was higher, it typically was not 15–16 percent but either 24 percent or 48 percent. The apparent absence of intermediary rates suggests that the Romans may have had difficulty calculating the interest due on anything other than mathematically convenient rates. They quoted them on a monthly basis, and the most common rates were multiples of twelve. Monthly rates tended to range from simple fractions to 3–4 percent, perhaps because lenders used Roman numerals.〔Temin, Peter: ''(Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire )'', The Journal of Economic History, Cambridge University Press, 2004, vol. 64, issue 03, p. 15.〕 Moneylending during this period was largely a matter of private loans advanced to persons short of cash, whether persistently in debt or temporarily until the next harvest. Mostly, it was undertaken by exceedingly rich men who were prepared to take on a high risk if the profit looked good; interest rates were fixed privately and were almost entirely unrestricted by law. Investment was always regarded as a matter of seeking personal profit, often on a large scale. Banking was of the small, back-street variety, run by the urban lower-middle class of petty shop-keepers. By the 3rd century, acute currency problems in the Empire drove them into decline.〔Young, Frances: ''Christian Attitudes to Finance in the First Four Centuries'', Epworth Review 4.3, Peterborough, September 1977, p. 80.〕 The rich who were in a position to take advantage of the situation became the money-lenders when the ever-increasing tax demands in the last declining days of the Empire crippled and eventually destroyed the peasant class by reducing tenant-farmers to serfdom. It was evident that usury meant exploitation of the poor.〔Young, Frances: ''Christian Attitudes to Finance in the First Four Centuries'', Epworth Review 4.3, Peterborough, September 1977, pp. 81–82.〕 The First Council of Nicaea, in 325, forbade clergy from engaging in usury〔Moehlman, Conrad H. 1934. "The Christianization of Interest." ''Church History''. Issue 3, p. 6.〕 (canon 17). At the time, usury was interest of any kind, and the canon forbade the clergy to lend money on interest even as little as 1 percent. Later ecumenical councils applied this regulation to the laity.〔〔Noonan, John T., Jr. 1993. "Development of Moral Doctrine." 54 Theological Stud. 662.〕 Lateran III decreed that persons who accepted interest on loans could receive neither the sacraments nor Christian burial.〔Moehlman, 1934, p. 6-7.〕 Pope Clement V made the belief in the right to usury a heresy in 1311, and abolished all secular legislation which allowed it.〔Moehlman, 1934, p. 7.〕 Pope Sixtus V condemned the practice of charging interest as "detestable to God and man, damned by the sacred canons and contrary to Christian charity."〔 Theological historian John Noonan argues that "the doctrine (usury ) was enunciated by popes, expressed by three ecumenical councils, proclaimed by bishops, and taught unanimously by theologians."〔 Certain negative historical renditions of usury carry with them social connotations of perceived "unjust" or "discriminatory" lending practices. The historian Paul Johnson, comments: The Hebrew Bible regulates interest taking. Interest can be charged to strangers but not between Hebrew. Israelites were forbidden to charge interest on loans made to other Israelites, but allowed to charge interest on transactions with non-Israelites, as the latter were often amongst the Israelites for the purpose of business anyway, but in general, it was seen as advantageous to avoid getting into debt at all to avoid being bound to someone else. Debt was to be avoided and not used to finance consumption, but only when in need. However, the laws against usury were among the many which the prophets condemn the people for breaking.〔Examples of debt: , , Isaiah 50:1. Prophetic condemnation of usury: Ezekiel 22:12, Nehemiah 5:7 and 12:13. Cautions regarding debt: Prov 22:7, passim.〕 Johnson contends that the Torah treats lending as philanthropy in a poor community whose aim was collective survival, but which is not obliged to be charitable towards outsiders. Usury (in the original sense of any interest) was at times denounced by a number of religious leaders and philosophers in the ancient world, including Moses,〔Exodus 22:25〕 Plato, Aristotle, Cato, Cicero, Seneca,〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Usury - The Root of All Evil )〕 Aquinas,〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Thomas Aquinas: On Usury, c. 1269-71 )〕 Muhammad,〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=The Prophet Muhammad's Last Sermon )〕 Jesus,〔Matthew 21:12-13, Matthew 5:17-18〕 Philo and Gautama Buddha. For example, Cato said: Interest of any kind is forbidden in Islam. As such, specialized codes of banking have developed to cater to investors wishing to obey Qur'anic law. ''(See Islamic banking)'' As the Jews were ostracized from most professions by local rulers, the Western churches and the guilds, they were pushed into marginal occupations considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending. Natural tensions between creditors and debtors were added to social, political, religious, and economic strains. In England, the departing Crusaders were joined by crowds of debtors in the massacres of Jews at London and York in 1189–1190. In 1275, Edward I of England passed the Statute of the Jewry which made usury illegal and linked it to blasphemy, in order to seize the assets of the violators. Scores of English Jews were arrested, 300 were hanged and their property went to the Crown. In 1290, all Jews were expelled from England, and allowed to take only what they could carry; the rest of their property became the Crown's. The usury was cited as the official reason for the Edict of Expulsion. However, not all Jews were expelled: it was easy to convert to Christianity and thereby avoid expulsion. Many other crowned heads of Europe expelled the Jews, although again conversion to Christianity meant that you were no longer considered a Jew (see the articles on marranos or crypto-Judaism). The growth of the Lombard bankers and pawnbrokers, who moved from city to city was along the pilgrim routes. In the 16th century, short-term interest rates dropped dramatically (from around 20–30% p.a. to around 9–10% p.a.). This was caused by refined commercial techniques, increased capital availability, the Reformation, and other reasons. The lower rates weakened religious scruples about lending at interest, although the debate did not cease altogether. The papal prohibition on usury meant that it was a sin to charge interest on a money loan. As set forth by Thomas Aquinas, the natural essence of money was as a measure of value or intermediary in exchange. The increase of money through usury violated this essence and according to the same Thomistic analysis, a just transaction was one characterized by an equality of exchange, one where each side received exactly his due. Interest on a loan, in excess of the principal, would violate the balance of an exchange between debtor and creditor and was therefore unjust. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「usury」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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